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120 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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BF Skinner
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operant conditioning, exogenous
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Reinforcement
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increases behavior. Positive = adding something, Negative = taking away something.
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Punishment
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decreases behavior
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Sd
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discriminative stimulus, tells about context/situation, which helps us select the operant that maximizes reinforcement and minimizes punishment
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Shaping
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The Law of Successive Approximations, gradually turn old behavior into new behavior by practice (training wheels)
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Mouse 1
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Light tells mouse when food will be available, helps maximize reinforcement. Light = Sd, Lever = Operant, Food = R+
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Mouse 2
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Light = Sd, Lever = Operant, Taking away electricity = R-
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Dad
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R+, increasing tantrum by adding candy
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Son
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R-, taking away crying
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Constructivism
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Piaget.
The active invention of meaning and knowledge, rejects nature vs. nurture. |
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Figurative Knowledge
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Get through sensation and learning. Simple, not created (language)
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Operative Knowledge
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Development of logic, how actions lead to development of knowledge, action on objects.
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Assimilation
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Confer meaning on experiences
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Accommodation
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Changing/adapting what you know to make it fit with new information. Can create misconceptions.
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Equilibriation
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tries to balance assimilation and accommodation, leads to development
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Sensorimotor Stage
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1. Simple reflexes (1 mo) sucking reflex, center of baby’s cognitive life. 2. First habits/primary circular reactions (1-4 mos) coordinate separate actions into integral activities, combine grasping and sucking. 3. Secondary circular reactions (4-8 mos) begin acting on outside world, shift from themselves, shakes rattle in different ways. 4. Coordination of sec. circ. Reactions (8-12 mos) object permanence, coordinate several schemes to generate single act (goal-directed behavior), push toy to reach one under it. 5. Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 mos) deliberate variations of actions that bring desirable consequences, mini experiments, drop toys to see where they fall. 6. Beginnings of thought (18-24 mos) mental representation or symbolic thought, imagine where objects they cannot see are, unseen trajectories. Deferred imitation: act when person who is not present is imitated by children, driving car, feeding doll. Stages 1-3 more assimilation, 4-6 accomodation.
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Permissiveness
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Least restrictive environment for discovery learning in relation to respective critical period
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Renee Spitz
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institutionalized infants, critical 1 yr period, affected social development
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Bowlby
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mothers are essential, attachment and loss (sep. and stranger anxiety), attachment due to nurturance, false.
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Harlow
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rhesus monkeys, cloth and wire, not live by bread alone, reversing social deprivation, attachment to material things
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Bower
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Theory of Communcation Rapport, est. attachment, toddlers: language
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Paradigms/Theories
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theories explain what facts mean, paradigms are a connection to theories that have important resemblances and connections
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Endogenous
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Nature
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Exogenous
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Nurture
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Determinism
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Freud - no causes without effects, no effects without causes, endogenous.
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Theory of Infantile Sexuality
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sexuality - the pursuit of pleasure independent of biological need
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Wilson
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phylogenesis - species. ontogenesis: individual. Survival of the fittest doesn't make evolution work, its reproductive success/gene fitness
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Physical Development
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how brain, nervous system, muscles, sensory capabilities, and needs for food, drink, and sleep affect behavior
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Cognitive Development
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intellectual abilities, including learning, memory, language, problem solving, intelligence
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Personality/Social Development
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Enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another and how interactions with others and social relationships grow and change over the life span
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Id
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raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality that is present at birth. Primitive drives. Pleasure principle.
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Ego
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rational and reasonable. Acts as a buffer between the real world and the id. Reality principle.
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Superego
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Conscience, distinctions between right and wrong, age 5-6, learned from adults.
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Psychosexual Development
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Oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, genital stage.
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Cephalocaudal Principle
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growth follows pattern that begins with head and upper body and proceeds to the rest of the body. Head to tail.
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Proximodistal Principle
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center of the body, outward, near and far
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Hierarchical Integration
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simple skills typically develop separately and independently. Later integrated into more complex skills.
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Independence of Systems
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body systems grow at different rates, behavior becomes integrated through rhythms.
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Gross Motor
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sitting upright, walking
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Fine Motor
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coordinated movements
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Dynamic Systems
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Thelen, sphere, not just dependent on brain initiation, coordination of muscles, perception, cognition, and motivation, advanced by exploratory activities, own motivation
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5-7 shift
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adults make a shift in their treatment of children. Occurs cross-culturally, onset of schooling, onset of independent labor, onset of modesty training.
Kids -> mylenation -> info processing speeds up: two changes in psychology of child, but not sufficient for C.O. thinking. |
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Concrete Operational Stage
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~6/8-11/17 or end of life. Can apply itself to physical objects and mental representations of concrete objects. Thinking in terms of specific operations. Logico-mathematical: assimilation rules, operations in classification and relationships.
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Classification
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Resorption: (dogs + poodles = dogs) Inversion-Negation (a + b – b = a) Identity (+/- 0) Associativity (a + b + c = c + a + b, class independent of the order of adding its elements)
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Relationships
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Reciprocity (Jim > Sal) Compensation (a change in 1 dimension is cancelled by an inverse change in a 2nd dimension) Transitivity (a = b, b = c, then a = c).
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Oedipal Complex
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: phallic stage, continue PLO, love-hate Dad, gender identity (penis, 5/6) become like Dad (identification), superego (conscience and ego ideal from Dad), sex role development, same sex peer groupings, onset of Latency stage. Strong masculine super ego. No shift in PLO. Child displays first emotional ambivalence. Weak feminine superego, shift in PLO, less room to build superego. Unavoidable, biological.
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Psychosocial Development
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development that encompasses changes both in the understandings individuals have of themselves as members of society and ther comprehension of the meaning of others’ behaviors. People pass through 8 stages, crisis that must be resolved. 1. Initiative vs guilt: children 3-6 experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes negative results of that action. Preschool: ending autonomy vs shame and doubt stage (1.5-3 yrs) become more independent and autonomous or shame/self-doubt if restricted. Gender identity: perception of themselves as male or female. To do this they develop gender schema: a cognitive framework that organizes info relevant to gender. 4/5 discover gender constancy: awareness that people are permanently males or females depending on fixed, unchangeable biological factors. Four approaches to gender dev.: Biological, Psychoanalytic (identification with same sex parent), Social learning, Cognitive (lens, rules)
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Play
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Relations with peers are for companionship, play, fun. Simple play: simple, repetitive activities typical of 3 yr olds (dolls, cars, skipping, jumping) Constructive: manipulate objects to produce or build something (doll house out of legos, puzzle, clay) Social Aspects- Parallel: children play with similar toys in a similar manner but do not interact with each other themselves (playing side by side individually) Onlooker: watch others at play but do not participate. Associative: two or more children interact by sharing or borrowing, although they do not do the same thing. Cooperative: genuinely interact with one another, taking turns.
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Parents
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authoritarian: controlling, strict, unquestioning obedience, no expressions of disagreement. Permissive: lax and inconsistent feedback, require little of their children. Authoritative: firm, set limits, but reason with children. Uninvolved: indifferent, rejecting behavior.
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Middle Childhood
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6-12, “school years,” only time when girls are taller.
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Special Needs
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early loss of hearing impairs abstract thinking, trouble with language, concrete concepts. Stuttering is most common speech impairment. 1 in 10 have LD. Mainstreaming: exceptional children are integrated as much as possible into the traditional education system and are provided with a broad range of educational alternatives. Full inclusion: integration of all students, even those with the most severe disabilities, into regular classes and all other aspects of school and community life.
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Vygotsky
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Classrooms are seen as a place where children should have the opportunity to experiment. Interaction with others leads to cognitive growth, nature of interactions must fall in child’s ZPD. Cooperative learning, reciprocal teaching.
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Reading
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code-based approach: reading should be taught by presenting basic skills that underlie reading. Sounds of letters, phonics. Whole-language approach: reading is a natural process, similar to acquisition of oral language. Children learn through exposure to complete writing, make guesses on meaning of words instead of sounding them out.
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Intelligence
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IQ = MA/CA x 100
Mental age, chronological age. 2/3 of people fall within 15 pts of 100. Stanford-Binet (SB5): series of items that vary according to the age of person being tested. WISC-IV: separate measures of verbal and nonverbal skills. KABC: measures ability to integrate different stimuli simultaneously and step-by-step thinking. Fluid intelligence: reflects performance processing, reasoning. Crystallized: accumulation of info, problem solving. Triarchic: componential, experiential, contextual. Most common bio cause of mental retardation is fetal alcohol syndrome and down syndrome. |
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Infant Memory
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memory capabilities, distinguish new stimuli from old. Infantile amnesia: lack of memory of experiences prior to 3 yrs, language plays role in memories, explicit memory: conscious, recalled intentionally – implicit: not consciously aware, affect performance and behavior, ride a bike, earliest memories
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Emotional Development
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birth: interest, distress, distrust. 1-4 mos: social smile, anger, surprise, sadness. 4-7 mos: fear, shame, shyness. 24-25 mos: guilt, contempt.
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Stranger Anxiety
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caution/weakness displayed by infants when encountering unfamiliar person ( 6+ mos)
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Separation Anxiety
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distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs (7-14 mos) social referencing: intentional search for info about others’ feelings to explain the meaning of uncertain circumstances and events (8-9 mos)
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Self-Awareness
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12 mos, theory of mind: knowledge/beliefs of how the mind works and how it influences behavior, compliant agents
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Empathy
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2 yrs, emo response corresponds to feelings of another person, begin using deception
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Ainsworth Strange Situation
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sequence of staged episodes that illustrates the strength of attachment between a child and typically his/her mother
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Secure Attachment Pattern
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children use the mother as a kind of home base and are at ease when she is present; when she leaves, they become upset and go to her as soon as she returns. Most children.
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Avoidant Attachment Pattern
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children do not seek proximity to the mother; after the mother has left, they seem to avoid her when she returns as if they are angered by her behavior.
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Ambivalent
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children display combination of pos and neg reactions to their mothers; they show great distress when she leaves, but upon her return they may simultaneously seek close contact but also hit and kick her.
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Disorganized Disorient
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children show inconsistent, often contradictory behavior, such as approaching the mother when she returns but not looking at her; they may be the least securely attached children of all
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Trust vs Mistrust
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period during which infants develop a sense of mistrust, largely depending on how well their needs are met by their caregivers.
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Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
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18 mos-3 yrs, develop independence and autonomy if they are allowed to explore, or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected.
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Arithmetic
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“+ join with” values are equal, not larger. 8 (quantitative meaning) pea (referential meaning), cardinal: how many, ordinal: position. Making model out of 1s, cardinal proof. Base ten blocks: mental representation.
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Multiplication
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“x sets of” makes arrangements different, start with the second number when making the arrangement.
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Subtraction
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"take away” subtraction is also finding the difference instead of taking away 6 + _ = 8 additive subtraction, _ - 5 = 3 finding the sum, missing sum subtraction. “10 astronauts, 6 male, how many female?” hardest for students, has no action, subset subtraction. 12 / 3 = operation, 12 grouped into 3 (# in set) = 4 (sets), 12 = 4 x 3 (read right to left). Partition division is taught first, but measurement should be taught first, repeated subtraction.
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Fractions
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: ½ “1 of 2 equal parts” don’t use reduce, say simplify to lowest terms/find fewest pieces to represent answer. Make sure you can build the arrangement before turning it into a problem ( ½ x ¼ = 1/8) Division of fractions: “Catholic Math” looks like you end up with more than you started with.
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Language
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1. Phonetic: rules of word sounds. 2. Semantic: word meanings 3. Syntactic: word order.
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Chomsky
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Language Acquisition Device (LAD): specialized portion of brain drive language, children can produce novel language. Traditional Psyholinguistics: sounds are the building blocks of language, so trace development of sounds from birth through maturity
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Lenneberg
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infants: prelinguistic speech. 1. Undifferentiated Crying (birth+) 2. Differentiated crying (1 mo) 3. Cooing (2 mos) repeated vowel sounds 4. Babbling (3-4 mos) consonant/vowel repetition, “ma ma” *Cannot tell language child will grow up with, all babies make same sounds in 1-4. Deaf babies go through 1-4 too. 5. Lallation (6-8 mos) imperfect imitation, “Mattme” 6. Echolallia (7-10 mos) perfect imitation, adults initiate, children echo 7. Expressive Jargon (7-12 mos) intention, turn-taking in conversation. Brown: linguistic speech, end of infancy 1. Holophrases (18-26 m) one word utterances 2. Two-word utterances (20-28 m) noun-verb “Kitty sleep” 3. Three-word utterances ( 2-3 yrs) n-v-o 4. Grammatical utterances (3+ yrs)
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Modern Psycholinguists
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Suggested language development cannot be found in sound development, phonetics and semantics (fig. meaning does not exist) Pragmatics: rules of word use, words do not have meaning, we use them for the meaning we want. Past tense irregular verbs, figurative speech, sarcasm, indirect request develop 6/7 years.
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Preoperational Stage
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2-8 yrs, classical conservation experiment: preoperational children say TN has more, always get judgment that amount of liquid has changed. Vivian Paley: assimilating what parents tell them to fit what makes sense to them.
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Assimilation Rules
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: 1. Immaculate Perception: seeing is believing, dreams: kids cannot differentiate between what they think they’re seeing and reality. Pedophiles take advantage of this: appearances are what they are. 2. Narrow Field of Attention: not short attention span, cognitive processing of one piece of info at a time, by the force of having a thought/noticing something is what makes it important. 3. Subjective Egocentrism: unaware that other people see things differently, Toddler’s Creed: if I want it, it’s mine. Homonyms: “shoot” 4. Inability to Form Logical Relationships: no logic or quantitative sense, 3 elephants is more than 3 peanuts. Difficult concepts to teach: time, zero
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Preoperational Thinking
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symbolic functions: ability to use a mental symbol, word, or object to represent something that is not physically present. Transformation: one state changed into another. Intuitive thought: reflects preschoolers’ use of primitive reasoning and their avid acquisition of knowledge about the world. Vygotsky: children learn through social interactions to solve problems
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Zone of Proximal Development
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level at which a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend or perform a task without assistance.
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Language
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language develops most 2-3 yrs, syntax doubles each month, fast mapping: process in which new words are associated with their meaning after only a brief encounter. Private speech: spoken language that is not intended for others and is commonly used by children during the preschool years. Social speech: speech directed toward another person and meant to be understood by that person. More words spoken to children in homes with professional parents, least in homes with welfare parents, more likely to hear prohibitions.
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Correlational Research
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whether an association or relationship between two factors excists
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Experimental Research
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Discover casual relationships between various factors
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Theoretical Research
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Designed to test some developmental explanation and expand scientific knowledge
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Applied Research
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Meant to provide practical solutions to immediate problems
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Behavioral Perspective
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Suggests keys to understanding development are obseravable behavior and outside stimuli
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Social-Cognitive Learning Theory
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emphasizes learning by observing the behavior of another person called a model
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Rousseau
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The Emile, boy being raised incorruptible, The Natural Plan: raised by Gods plan, moral for life, stages corresponding to critical period. Childhood - new concept.
Children were noble savages, born with an innate sense of right and wrong, corrupted by negative experiences. |
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Lorenz
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On Aggression, geeze, imprint, critical periods
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Watson
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Behaviorism, only thing children need is biological needs
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History-graded influences
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bio/environmental influences associated with a particular historical moment
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Age-graded influences
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Particular age group, regardless of when/where raised
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Sociocultural-graded influences
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ethnicity, social class
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Non-normative life events
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specific, atypical events that occur in a person's life at a time when such events do not happen to most people
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John Locke
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considered a child to be a tabula rasa, shaped by experiences
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Continuous Change
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Development is gradual, with achievements at one level building on those of previous levels, produces changes that are a matter of degree, not kind.
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Discontinuous Change
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occurs in distinct steps or stages. Each state brings about behavior that is assumed to be different from behavior at earlier stages.
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Psychodynamic Perspective
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behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, conflicts of which a person has little awareness
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Psychoanalytic Theory
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Freud suggest unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior
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Psychosexual Development
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Freud, a series of stages children pass through in which pleasure is focused on a particular biological function and body part.
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Psychosocial Development
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Encompasses changes in the understanding individuals have of their interactions with others, of others behavior and of themselves
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Cognitive Perspective
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on the processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world
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Contextual Perspective
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relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, social, and physical worlds
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Bioecological
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Different levels of the environment simultaneously influence every biological organism
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Evolutionary Perspective
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identify behavior that is the result of our genetic inheritance ancestors
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Formal Operations
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Hypothetico-deductive thinking: can deduce implications of hypothetical statements, logically manipulate propositions. Recursive Thinking: “thinking about thinking” thought turned inward on itself. Isolation of variables: pendulum problem, able to isolate effects of one variable from multiple, interacting variables. Reality Subordinated to Possibility: reality viewed as subset of possibility, NOT possibility determined by reality
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Elkind
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Adolescent egocentrism: the imaginary audience (if I can have these thoughts, so can others, constantly holding me up to their expectations, nose hairs) personal fable (I'm different, I'm unique, I'm special, FB dream)
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Erikson
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Identity vs Identity Diffusion. Parents don't always tell truth, crisis of fidelity. Moratorium: the individual stands for nothing because everything is changeable. Leads to a strong or diffused identity. Strong identity leads to strong enduring relationships, active experimentation with ideas.
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Marcia
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Diffusion: No crisis, No commitment. Moratorium: crisis, no commitment. Foreclosure: no crisis, no commitment. Resolution: crisis, commitment.
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Rites of Passage
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Culturally sanctioned rituals that mark a status change from child to adult. Time table.
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Separation
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Involuntary, irreversible, always gender specific, frequently occurs after puberty.
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Training
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gender specific, purification
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Rituals and Ceremonies
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Distortion: enhance beauty, does not destroy tissue. Mutilation: destroys tissue, scarification. Circumcision: enhance fertility
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Absorption
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Transformation complete, enter adulthood
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Adolescence Definitions
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Piaget - FO
Erikson - identity Rites - socio-cultural Biological - maturation |
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Chastity Bill
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take away federal subsidies from schools that refused to stop sex ed, failed.
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Health Educational Welfare
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parental consent, "Squeal Rule"
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Early Sex Ed
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Agricultural economics, HS Biology
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Sexual Revolution
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Health education, family life, reproduction, went from 34% to 70% of sexually active unmarrieds.
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1980s Sex Ed
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Religious backlash, led to religious politics in 90s, Abstinence until Marriage curriculum.
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Limitations with Erikson's Theory
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uses male identity as the standard
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