Eduvational Research Class Edb 601 2008

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What is Research

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is the formal, systematic application of the scientific and disciplined inquiry approach to the study of problems

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Educational research

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is the systematic application of a family of methods employed to provide trustworthy information about educational problem, issues, and topics.

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Two approaches to educational research

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inductive and deductive

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Deductive reasoning

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goes from the general to the specific. Specific Predictions are made based on general principles, observations, or experiences.
Research uses systematic and disciplined inquiry, involving 4 steps:

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Inductive reasoning

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goes from the specific to the general. Generalizations are developed from a limited number of observations or experiences

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Research uses systematic and disciplined inquiry, involving 4 steps:

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1. Identification of a topic to study
2. Description/execution of procedures to collect information on the topic
3. Analysis of the collected data
4. Results or implications based on the analysis of the data

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Research may be classified as either

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Basic research or Applied research

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Evaluation research

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makes decisions about the quality, effectiveness, merit, or value of educational programs or practices. It focuses mainly on decision-making and is highly applied and practical
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Quantitative research

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methods are based on the collection and analysis of numerical data, usually obtained from
questionnaires,
tests,
checklists, and
other formal paper-and-pencil instruments.
There is little actual personal interaction between researcher and participants.

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Quantitative research

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The world-view is one of a relatively stable, uniform, and coherent world that can be measured, understood and generalized. If the world and the laws that govern it are relatively stable, then they can be understood by scientific research and examination.
This positivist view believes that nothing can

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Quantitative approaches:

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Survey research is descriptive research that involves collecting data to answer questions about the current status of issues or topics. Data are collected mainly from tests and questionnaires that research participants self-administer and complete.
Correlational research seeks to determine whether, or to what extent, a statistical relationship exists between two or more variables

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Variable

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is a concept that can assume any one of a range of values. For example, height, test score, intelligence.

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Correlation

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is a quantitative measure of the degree of correspondence between 2 or more variables.

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Correlation coefficient

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is the degree of correspondence. Ranging from –1.00 to +1.00, is 2 variables have no correlation, the coefficient will be near 0. If they are closely correlated, then they will be near either –1.00 (negative, so that as one variable increases the other decreases) or +1.00 (positive, so that as one variable increases, so does the other). Correlation does not imply cause and effect.
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Causal – Comparative Research

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Also called ex post facto research (after the fact) looks the relationships among variables that cannot meet the stringent criteria for true experimental research. The independent variable (the cause) has already occurred and cannot be manipulated or should not be manipulated. At least 2 different groups are compared on some dependent variable (the effect).

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Experimental Research

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Allows researchers to make cause-effect statements about their research studies, the strongest results of any of the quantitative research approaches. The researcher controls the independent variable (the cause). In a true experiment, the participants are divided into 2 groups, each getting a different treatment.

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Qualitative research
methods are based on the collection and analysis of nonnumerical data such as

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observations,
interviews,
focus groups, and
videotaping.
There is a great deal of interaction between the researcher and the participants, making the problem of bias more important than in quantitative research.

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Qualitative Research

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The world-view is that it is not stable or uniform and all meaning is situated in a particular perspective or context. And since people often have different experiences leading to their different perspectives and contexts, there are many different meanings in the world, none of which is more true or valid than another.

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Qualitative Approaches

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Action research attempts to improve an educational practice or help teachers understand issues and problems for themselves.
Ethnography studies participants in their natural culture or setting.
Grounded theory attempts to derive a theory from the analysis of multiple stages of data collection and interpretation. The researcher looks for patterns, themes, and categories from the qualitative topic and data. The theory that is developed comes from the data, rather than the data confirming the theory.
Historical research involves studying, understanding, and interpreting the past in an attempt to gain insights or conclusions about past persons or events. Primary sources include firsthand information (eyewitness reports or original documents). Secondary sources are descriptions of an event by someone who was not an eyewitness, textbook. External criticism assesses the authenticity of information; internal criticism evaluates the worth or truthfulness of the content of the data.

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Qualitative approaches provide

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field-focused, interpretive, detailed descriptions and interpretations of participants and their settings.
• Long-term immersion into the research setting is also common because of the belief that participants and their contexts are not independent.
• Data analysis is based on categorizing and interpreting the observations, conversing with participants, studying documents, and interviews collected
• an explanation of the participants and their experiences seen within the context of their unique culture

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Research topics come from

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1. Theories: an organized body of concepts, generalizations, and principles that can be subjected to investigation.
2. Personal educational questions
3. Replication: “doing it again,” usually with one or more features of the original work changed.
4. Library search

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Narrowing the topic

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In quantitative research, the topic has to be narrowed into a more specific and manageable topic so that the hypotheses, instruments, strategies, and analyses can be determined.
In qualitative research, beginning with only a general topic area allows the researcher to formulate a narrowed topic after spending some time observing in the research setting.

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Characteristics of good topics

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1. Interesting. It will hold the researcher’s interest over the long research process.
2. Researchable. It can be investigated through the collection and analysis of data. It is not stated as a topic seeking to determine what should be done.
3. Significant. It contributes to the improvement or better understanding of education theory or practice.
4. Manageable. It fits the researcher’s level or research skill, needed resources, and time restrictions.
5. Ethical. It doesn’t contain practices or strategies that might embarrass or harm the participants.

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Stating the Research Topic

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Qualitative: Are usually stated in general terms. In qualitative studies, the researcher goes in with a general idea, and over the course of his study, finds the specifics.
“The purpose of this study is to describe the nature of children’s engagement with mathematics. The intention is to gather details about children’s ways of entering into and sustaining their involvement with mathematics.”
Quantitative: The statement of the topic includes the variables of interest, the specific relationship between those variables, and the nature of the participants involved.
“The topic to be investigated in this study is secondary teachers’ attitudes toward required afterschool activities.”
The topic statement appears as the first component of the introduction of both a research plan and the completed research paper. It should be accompanied by a presentation of the topic’s background (information the reader needs to understand the topic), a justification (how it will contribute to educational theory or practice) for the study in terms of its significance, and often a list of limitations of the study.

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Review of Literature

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Its major purpose is to find out what has already been done, and what suggestions for future research have been made.
It can point out research strategies and data collection approaches that have and have not been productive in researching topics such as yours.
Familiarity with previous research can help you focus your study: if previous research disagrees with your finding, then you can show how your study differs which may provide the rationale for your results or suggests other studies that might resolve the discrepancy. If your findings are the same, then you should suggest what next steps should
be taken.

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Evaluating Sources

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Refereed journals publish articles only after they have complied with strict guidelines in terms of format and research procedures. They have been reviewed by a panel of experts and are therefore considered to be more “trustworthy” than nonrefereed journal articles.
In reading the article, is the information presented objective and impartial? Can the author support the interpretations made by the evidence presented? Is the content primarily opinion or data that has been appropriately collected and analyzed? Does the article contain information that adds to your knowledge of the topic?

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Analyzing, Organizing, and Reporting the Literature

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1. Make an outline
2. Match each reference to its place in the outline.
3. All references for a specific subheading in the outline should be analyzed. If the same, then combine them in one summary statement:
“Several studies have found that by sixth grade, girls’ mathematical ability seems to decrease as boys’ ability begins to increase (Tolliver, 2001; Snead, 1999; Brown, 1994).
4. Begin with the references that are the least related to the problem, so that you end
with the information that best supports your hypothesis.
5. Conclude the review with a brief summary of the literature and its implications

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Formulating and Stating a Hypothesis

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In Quantitative Research:
Hypothesis: A tentative, reasonable, testable explanation for the occurrence of certain behaviors, phenomena, or events.
It states the researchers’ expectations about the relationships between the variables and the research topic. It is usually derived from a theory or the review of the related literature. In quantitative research, the hypotheses precede the study because the nature of the study is determined by the hypothesis. The hypothesis is based on theory or previous knowledge and aims to expand knowledge.

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In Qualitative Research

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Rather than use the hypothesis as the starting point of the study, the qualitative researchers generates new hypotheses as a result of their studies. Qualitative researchers try to get to know their participants and their setting before they make judgments or hypothesize

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Criteria for Hypotheses

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1. It is based on sound reasoning
2. It provides a reasonable explanation for the predicted outcome.
3. It clearly states the expected relationship between defined variables.
4. It is testable within a reasonable time frame.

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Operational definitions

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clearly describe variables. It defines concepts in terms of processes or operations.
Types of

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Types of Hypotheses

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Inductive hypothesis is a generalization based on specific observations.
Deductive hypothesis are derived form theory, based on the researcher developing a specific prediction from general principles.
Research hypothesis states an expected relationship or difference between two variables.
Nondirectional hypothesis simply states that a relationship for difference exists between variables.
“There is a significant difference in the achievement of 10th grade biology students who are instructed using interactive multimedia and those who receive regular instruction only.”
Directional hypothesis states the expected direction of the relationship or difference.
“Tenth-grade biology students who are instructed using interactive multimedia achieve at a higher level than those who receive regular instruction only.”
Null hypothesis states that there is no significant relationship or difference between variables.
“There is no significant difference in the achievement level of 10th grade biology students who are instructed using interactive multimedia and those who receive regular instruction.”

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Stating the Hypothesis

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Is clearly and concisely stated, expressing the relationship between two variables, and defining the variables in measured terms.
P = the participants
X = the treatment, the causal or independent variable (IV)
Y = the study outcome, the effect or dependent variable (DV)
P who get X do better on Y than P who do not get X (or get some other X).
“The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of 12th grade mentors on the absenteeism of low-achieving 10th graders.”

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Testing the Hypothesis

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If the analysis of the data does not support your hypothesis, it does not mean that your study was a failure. Your study has made a contribution by showing that variables may not be related or that some aspect of the theory needs revision. Hypothesis testing expands, revises, and refines the knowledge base

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Definition and Purpose of a Research Plan

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A research plan is a detailed description of the procedure that will be used to investigate a topic or problem. It includes the justification for hypotheses or exploration of posed research questions, and a detailed presentation of the research steps that will be followed in collecting and analyzing the data.

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The Ethics of Research

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The need to carry out the study must not be put above the responsibility to see that no harm comes to the participants. If the participants do not trust the researcher, the researcher cannot expect the participants to be trustworthy in the data they provide

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Anonymity

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means that the researcher does not know the identities of the participants

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Confidentiality

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means that the researcher knows the identities of the participants but promises not to reveal them

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Deception

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occurs when a researcher poses a topic that, if given complete information to potential participants, would likely influence or change their responses.

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Components of the Research Plan

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Introduction
Statement of the topic
Review of related literature
Statement of the hypothesis (if appropriate)
Method
Participants
Instruments
Design
Procedure
Data Analysis
Time Schedule
Budget (if appropriate)

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hypothesis

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is a researcher’s assumptions and expectations of what the relationship will be between various variables.

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Criteria for hypotheses

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Based on sound reasoning.
Provide a reasonable explanation for the predicted outcome.
3. Clearly state predicted relationship between defined vars.
4. Hypotheses are testable.
5. An hypothesis is an important link between theory and the study.
Hypotheses use operational definitions – a clear description of a var.

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hypothesis

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is a researcher’s assumptions and expectations of what the relationship will be between various variables.

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The two primary types of hypotheses are:

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Research hypothesis (alternative hypothesis). States an expected relationship (or difference) between vars.
Null hypothesis. States there is no significant relationship (or difference) between vars.

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Criteria for hypotheses

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Based on sound reasoning.
Provide a reasonable explanation for the predicted outcome.
3. Clearly state predicted relationship between defined vars.
4. Hypotheses are testable.
5. An hypothesis is an important link between theory and the study.
Hypotheses use operational definitions – a clear description of a var.

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Hypotheses can be stated statistically (M = mean score for group a or b.):

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H0: Ma = Mb [Null hypothesis]
H1: Ma ≠ Mb [Research Hypothesis] or
H1: Ma < Mb [Directional Research Hypothesis] or
H1: Ma > Mb [Directional Research Hypothesis]

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The two primary types of hypotheses are:

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Research hypothesis (alternative hypothesis). States an expected relationship (or difference) between vars.
Null hypothesis. States there is no significant relationship (or difference) between vars.

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Hypotheses can be stated statistically (M = mean score for group a or b.):

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H0: Ma = Mb [Null hypothesis]
H1: Ma ≠ Mb [Research Hypothesis] or
H1: Ma < Mb [Directional Research Hypothesis] or
H1: Ma > Mb [Directional Research Hypothesis]