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155 Cards in this Set

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Culture:
the knowledge, values, attitudes, and traditions that guide the behavior of a group of people and allow them to solve the problems of living in their environment
Socioeconomic status (SES):
relative standing in the society based on income, power, background, and prestige
Resistance culture:
group values and beliefs about refusing to adopt the behaviors and attitudes of the majority culture
Tracking:
assignment to different classes and academic experiences based on achievement
Immigrants:
people who voluntarily leave their country to become permanent residents in a new place
Refugees:
a special group of immigrants who also relocate voluntarily. But who are fleeing their home country because it’s not safe
Melting pot:
a metaphor for the absorption and assimilation of immigrants into the mainstream of society so that ethnic differences vanish
Cultural deficit model:
a model that explains the school achievement problems of ethnic minority students by assuming their culture is inadequate and does not prepare them to succeed in school
Ethnicity:
a cultural heritage shared by a group of people
Race:
a socially constructed category based on appearances and ancestry
Minority group:
a group of people who have been socially disadvantaged—not always related to actual numbers
Prejudice:
prejudgment or irrational generalization about an entire category of people
Stereotype:
schema that organizes knowledge or perceptions about a category; often has a negative connotation
Discrimination:
treating or acting unfairly toward particular categories of people
Stereotype threat:
the extra emotional and cognitive burden that your performance in an academic situation might confirm an assumption that others hold about you
Gender biases:
different views of males and female, often favoring one over the other
Multicultural education:
education that promotes equity in the schooling of all students
Content integration:
using examples and content from a variety of cultures and groups to illustrate key concepts, principles, generalizations, and theories in their subject area or discipline
An equity pedagogy:
matching teaching styles to students’ learning styles in order to facilitate the academic achievement of students from diverse racial, cultural, and social class groups
An empowering school culture and social structure:
examining group and labeling practices, sports participation, and the interaction of the staff and the students across ethnic and racial lines to create a school culture that empowers students from all groups
Prejudice reduction:
identifying the characteristics of students’ racial attitudes and determining how they can be modified by teaching
Culturally relevant pedagogy:
excellent teaching for students of color that includes academic success, developing/maintaining cultural competence, and developing a critical consciousness to challenge the status quo
Resilience:
the ability to adapt successfully in spite of difficult circumstances and threats to development
Academic self-efficacy:
a belief in your own ability to learn; one of the most consistent predictors of academic achievement
Behavioral self-control:
student self-regulation; essential for safe and orderly learning environment
Academic self-determination:
includes making choices, setting goals, and following through; the third element of self-agency strand
Sociolinguistics:
the study of the formal and informal rules for how, when, about what, to whom, and how to speak in conversations within cultural groups
Pragmatics:
the rules for when and how to use language to be an effective communicator in a particular culture
Participation structures:
the formal and informal rules for how to take part in a given activity
Learning:
process through which experience causes permanent change in knowledge or behavior
Behavioral learning theories:
explanations of learning that focus on external events as the cause of changes in observable behaviors
Contiguity:
association of two events because of repeated pairing
Stimulus:
event that activates behavior
Response:
observable reaction to a stimulus
Classical conditioning:
association of automatic responses with new stimuli
Respondents:
responses (generally automatic or involuntary) elicited by specific stimuli
Neutral stimulus:
event that activates behavior that is not connected to a response
Unconditioned stimulus (US):
stimulus that automatically produces an emotional or physiological response
Unconditioned response (UR):
naturally occurring emotional or physiological response
Conditioned Stimulus (CS):
stimulus that evokes an emotional or physiological response after conditioning
Conditioned Response (CR):
learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
Operants:
voluntary (and generally goal-directed) behaviors emitted by a person or an animal
Operant conditioning:
learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences or antecedents
Antecedents:
events that precede an action
Consequences:
events that follow an action
Reinforcement:
use of consequences to strengthen behavior
Reinforcer:
any event that follows a behavior and increases the chances that the behavior will occur again
Positive reinforcement:
strengthening behavior by presenting a desired stimulus after the behavior
Negative reinforcement:
strengthening behavior by removing an aversive stimulus when the behavior occurs
Aversive:
irritating or unpleasant
Punishment:
process that weakens or suppresses behavior
Presentation punishment:
decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur again by presenting an aversive stimulus following the behavior; also called Type I punishment
Removal punishment:
decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur by removing a pleasant stimulus following the behavior; also called Type II punishment
Continuous reinforcement schedule:
presenting a reinforcer after every appropriate response
Intermittent reinforcement schedule:
presenting a reinforcer after some but not all responses
Interval schedule:
length of time between reinforcers
Ratio schedule:
reinforcement based on the number of responses between reinforcers
Extinction:
the disappearance of a learned response
Stimulus control:
capacity for the presence or absence of antecedents to cause behaviors
Effective instruction delivery:
instructions that are concise, clear, and specific, and that communicate an expected result. Statements work better than questions
Cueing:
provide a stimulus that “sets up” a desired behavior
Prompt:
a reminder that follows a cue to make sure the person reacts to the cue
Applied behavior analysis:
the application of behavioral learning principles to understand and change behavior
Behavior modification:
systematic application of antecedents and consequences to change behavior
Premack principle:
Principle stating that more-preferred activity can serve as a reinforcer for a less-preferred activity—Grandma’s Rule
Differential reinforcement:
ignoring inappropriate behaviors
Shaping:
reinforcing each small step of progress toward a desired goal or behavior
Successive approximations:
small components that make up a complex behavior
Also known as shaping
Task analysis:
system for breaking down a task hierarchically into basic skills and subskills
Positive practice:
practicing correct responses immediately after errors
Good behavior game:
arrangement where a class is divided into teams and each team receives demerit points for breaking agreed-upon rules of good behavior
Group consequences:
rewards or punishments given to a class as a whole for adhering to or violating rules of conduct
Contingency contract:
a contract between the teacher and a student specifying what the student must do to earn a particular reward or privilege
Token reinforcement system:
system in which tokens earned for academic work and positive classroom behavior can be exchanged for some desired reward
Functional behavior assessment (FBA):
procedures used to obtain information about antecedents, behaviors, and consequences to determine the reason or function of the behavior
Positive behavior supports (PBS):
interventions designed to replace problem behaviors with new actions that serve the same purpose for the student
Precorrection:
a tool for positive behavior support that involves identifying the context for a student’s misbehavior, clearly identifying the alternative expected behavior, modifying the situation to make the problem behavior less likely, then rehearsing the expected positive behaviors in the new context and providing powerful reinforcers
Social learning theory:
theory that emphasizes learning through observation of others
Social cognitive theory:
theory that adds concern with cognitive factors such as beliefs, self-perceptions, and expectations to social learning theory
Observational learning:
also known as vicarious learning- learning by seeing and imitating others
Enactive learning:
learning by doing and experiencing the consequences of your actions; consequences provide information rather than strengthening or weakening the behavior
Vicarious reinforcement:
increasing the chances that we will repeat a behavior by observing another person being reinforced for that behavior
Self-reinforcement:
controlling your own reinforcers
Self-management:
use of behavioral learning principles to change you own behavior—goal setting, monitoring and evaluating progress, and self-reinforcement
Cognitive view of learning:
a general approach that views learning as an active mental process of acquiring, remembering, and using knowledge
Domain-specific knowledge:
Information that is useful in a particular situation or that applies mainly to one specific topic
General knowledge:
Information that is useful in many different kinds of tasks; information that applies to many situations
Information processing:
The human mind’s activity of taking in, storing, and using information
Sensory memory:
System that holds sensory information very briefly
Perception:
Interpretation of sensory information
Bottom-up processing:
Perceiving based on noticing separate defining features and assembling them into a recognizable pattern
Gestalt:
German for pattern or whole; Theorists who hold that people organize their perceptions into coherent wholes; principles of proximity, principle of similarity, principle of good continuation, principle of closure, principle of common fate
Prototype:
A best example or best representative of a category
Attention:
focus on a stimulus
Automaticity:
the ability to perform thoroughly learned tasks without much mental effort
Working memory:
The information that you are focusing on at a given moment is held here
Made up of three components
Short-term memory:
component of memory system that holds information for about 2 seconds
Central executive:
the part of working memory that is responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental resources
Phonological loop:
part of working memory; it is a memory rehearsal system for verbal and sound information of about 1.5 to 2 seconds
Visuospatial sketchpad:
part of working memory that is a holding system for visual and spatial information
Cognitive load:
the volume of resources necessary to complete a task
Intrinsic cognitive load:
the resources required by the task itself, regardless of other stimuli
Extraneous cognitive load:
the resources required to process stimuli irrelevant to the task
Germane cognitive load:
deep processing of information related to the task, including the application of prior knowledge to a new task or problem
Maintenance rehearsal:
Keeping information in working memory by repeating it to yourself
Elaborative rehearsal:
Keeping information in working memory by associating it with something else you already know
Chunking:
grouping individual bits of data into meaningful large units
Decay:
The weakening and fading of memories with the passage of time
Long-term memory:
permanent store of knowledge
Declarative knowledge:
verbal information; facts; “knowing that” something is the case
Procedural knowledge:
knowledge that is demonstrated when we perform a task; “knowing how”
Self-regulatory knowledge:
Knowing how to manage your learning, or knowing how and when to use your declarative and procedural knowledge
Explicit memory:
long-term memories that involve deliberate or conscious recall
Implicit memory:
knowledge that we are not conscious of recalling, but influences behavior or thought without our awareness
Semantic memory:
memory for meaning
Propositional network:
set of interconnected concepts and relationships in which long-term knowledge is held
Images:
representations based on the physical attributes—the appearance—of information
Concept:
a category used to group similar events, ideas, objects, or people
Defining attribute:
qualities that connect members of a group to a specific concept
Prototype:
a best example or best representative of a category
Exemplar:
an actual memory of a specific object
Schemas:
Basic structures for organizing information; concepts
Story grammar:
typical structure or organization for a category of stories
Episodic memory:
long-term memory for information tied to a particular time and place, especially the memory of the events of a person’s life
Flashbulb memory:
clear, vivid memory of an emotionally important event in your life
Procedural memory:
long-term memory for how to do things
Script:
schema or expected plan for the sequence of steps in a common event such as buying groceries or ordering pizza
Productions:
the contents of procedural memory; rules about what actions to take, given certain conditions
Priming:
activating a concept in memory or the spread of activation from one concept to another
Elaboration:
adding and extending meaning by connecting new information to existing knowledge
Organization:
ordered and logical network of relations
Context:
The physical or emotional backdrop associated with an event
Levels of processing theory:
Theory that recall of information is based on how deeply it is processed
Spreading activation:
retrieval of pieces of information based on their relatedness to one another; remembering one bit of information activates (stimulates) recall of associated information
Retrieval:
process of searching for and finding information in long-term memory
Reconstruction:
recreating information by using memories, expectations, and existing knowledge
Interference:
the process that occurs when remembering certain information is hampered by the presence of other information
Dual coding:
First idea of Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning: visual and verbal materials are processed in different systems
Limited Capacity:
Second idea of Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning: Working memory for verbal and visual material is severely limited. Cognitive load has to be managed
Generative learning:
Third idea of Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning: Meaningful learning happens when students focus on relevant information and build connections
Mnemonics:
techniques for remembering; the art of memory
Loci method:
techniques of associating items with specific places
Acronym:
technique for remembering but using the first letter of each word in a phrase to form a new, memorable word
Chain mnemonics:
memory strategies that associate one element in a series with the next element
Keyword method:
system of associating new words or concepts with similar-sounding cue words and images (recode, relate, retrieve)
Rote memorization:
remembering information by repetition without necessarily understanding the meaning of the information
Serial-position effect:
the tendency to remember the beginning and the end but not the middle of the list
Part learning:
breaking a list of items into shorter lists
Distributed practice:
practice in brief periods with rest intervals
Massed practice:
practice for a single extended period
Automated basic skills:
skills that are applied without conscious thought
Domain-specific strategies:
consciously applied skills to reach goals in a particular subject or problem
Executive control process:
processes such as selective attention, rehearsal, elaboration, and organization that influence encoding, storage, and retrieval of information in memory
Metacognition:
knowledge about our own thinking process; includes declarative, procedural, and self-regulatory knowledge
The knowledge constructions process:
helping students to understand how the implicit cultural assumptions within a discipline influence the ways that knowledge is constructed within it