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64 Cards in this Set

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The Sigatoka virus is particularly harmful to bananas because:
they are genetically identical
Describe two triggers to germinate seeds of tropical pioneer species in the rainforest.
Photoblastic species are triggered to germinate by exposure to light in which the energy of the red wavelength exceeds the far-red
Thermoblastic species are triggered to germinate by either high temperature, or by alternating high and low temperature
Allows seeds to detect the change from closed canopy to gap
What are 4 adaptations plants have developed in the Amazon in defense against herbivory?
Longevity, chemical-highest level of investment in secondary compounds, rapid expansion because there is the most herbivory in the expansion phase, poor nutritional quality, leaf toughness, delayed greening, mutualisms with ants and other insects.
Distinguish between the following: hermaphrodite, monoecious, dioecious
Hermaphrodite: has only hermaphrodite reproductive units (perfect flower-both male and female reproductive organs)
Monoecious: has unisexual reproductive units of both sexes appearing on the same plant, “one house”
Dioecious: has unisexual reproductive units occurring on different individuals, “two houses”
What is the difference between a primary attraction and a secondary attraction? Provide an example of each.
A primary attraction is what the insect actually receives by going to pollinate a plant. Ex: pollen, nectar, perfumes, protection and brood place, oils, foods
A secondary attraction is what attracts an insect to pollinate a plant. Ex: Floral scent, visual attraction, temperature, sexual attraction
What are some adaptations of plants that are found in the Páramo?
leaves can be white to reflect light
leaves with espinas protect the plants from being eaten by animals such as rabbits
leaves have hair and wax to keep warm at night
plants have parts that are dead higher up in the leaves to shade the part below that is alive
some plants grow in clumps close together
leaves tend to be thicker
Looking at the four subjects of pollination: timing, anthesis, pollination vectors, and compatibility/out crossing in pollination- describe the differences between tropical rainforest (TRF) and temperate forests (TF)
Timing: TRF- a seasonal, throughout the year, with some peak periods
TF- confined to late spring and summer
-Anthesis: TRF- flow lasts 1 to 2 days (pressure from predatory pathogens and fungi)
TF- externs to seven days (uncertain weather = unpredictable conditions)
-Pollination Vectors: TRF- 1-2% wind pollination speciation, in gaps dropped from 38-8% in 2 years…. 98-99% animal pollination, majority insects especially social (bees), and high proportion of vertebrate pollination ~30%
TF- 80-100% wind pollinated in Northern latitude, gymnosperms and angiosperms with modified flowers. 0-20% animal pollinator dependent plants correlated in latitude.
-Compatibility and Out crossing: TRF- large percentage of dioecious in the tropics. More evidence of strata differences, most canopy trees are obligate out crossers (dioecious 25%, monoecious 10%, hermaphrodite 65%), and understory has 34% obligate out crossers (highest diversity of pollination systems maybe due to diversity of plant species in this stratum)
TF- little stratum variance, physiological self-incompatibility is known to be common.
Why is studying pollination ecology in the tropical rainforest ecosystems difficult?
complex web of relations, high canopy limits access, high biodiversity and lots of selection pressures, little is understood and studied.
What is the Out-crossing Index and what does it describe?
The outcrossing index is a rating given to hermaphroditic flowers according to their physiological characteristics that have an effect on sexual reproduction. The rating is based on the diameter of the corolla of the flower, the temporal separation of anther dehiscence and stigma receptivity, and the position of the stigma and anthers.
Name three advertisements “secondary attractants” that plants use to attract insect pollinators.
floral scent
visual attraction
heat
sexual attraction – plants imitate pheromones/morphology of female flies or bees (ex: orchid and bees- male insects preform pseudocopulation
shape- landing platform
What is the difference between herbivory and defoliation?
Herbivory: Foliage partially grazed
Defoliation: Foliage grazed in its entirety
Describe the difference between imparipinada, paripinada, and bipinada.
In a compound leaf, imparipinada is leaflets odd in number, paripinada is leaflets even in number, and bipinada is leaflets twice divided.
What are the 3 subfamilies of Fabiaceae and describe their characteristics?
Caesaloinioidae= most primative, does not fix nitrogen, usually paripinnada, no glands, has 5 petals with one larger one. faboideae= has glands, usually imparipinada, food crops (beans). mimosoideae= usually bipinadas (except inga), flor tiene cepillos con estabres grandes.
Explain the fundamental differences between pollination in tropical rainforests and temperate forests.
Timing: tropical plants follow a seasonal flower patterns making them able to flower all year around while temperate forests are confined to spring and summer.

Anthesis: Flowers are in bloom for no more than one of two days in the tropics because of pressure from predators, fungi, and parasites. Flowers in temperate zones will stay in bloom for weeks because of inconsistent pollinators.

Pollination vectors: majority of flowers in the tropics are pollinated by a specific vector- insects, hummingbirds, bats, etc. In temperate forests, most flowers are pollinated by wind.

Compatibility and out-crossing: There is a higher percentage of dioecious plants in the tropics; plants are thus more complex and diverse. Additionally there is much more strata variance of reproductive systems- meaning reproductive systems vary between canopy and under story. In temperate zones there is little strata variance and self-incompatibility in common.
Describe the four hypothesis used to explain lekking behavior in Rupicola peruvianus (Andean Cock of the Rock)
a)Female selection hypothesis: females prefer to visit large groups of males to size up their options, and therefore have selected for males that form large groups.
b)Kin selection hypothesis: all the participating males in a lek are related to each other and therefore when one of them gets to mate with most of the females, some of that shared genetic material is passed on. This gives even a solitary male at least some degree of genetic fitness.
c)Hot spot hypothesis: Females naturally visit certain “hotspots” and therefore males benefit from congregating at these spots to up the probability that they will encounter a female.
d)Hotshot hypothesis: Subordinate males naturally flock around dominant males in the hopes of intercepting females that are attracted to the dominant male.
¿Qué es la 'regla' con los nidos de guano de patas azules y sus crias? ¿ Por qué normalmente solo una cria sobrevive y no los dos?
Los padres patas azules solo pueden cuidar a un polluelo y por eso, lo más fuerte de los dos va a vivir. Normalmente, si un huevo o un polluelo está afuera del circulo de guano, está 'muerto' a los padres y ellos no le cuidan nada más. El primer polluelo nace con una alta nivel de testostorono y por eso el el primero que sobrevive por la mayoría del tiempo. Es muy dificil alimentar dos polluelos para los padres por que tienen que ir tan lejos para buscar peces. Sería muy dificil buscar alimentación suficiente para los dos. Pues, algunas veces los dos polluelos sobrevive por un caso de suerte.
What are some advantages of birds who travel in mixed flocks?
Improve search of food, protection from predators, can cover vast areas, there is less competition that one there is only one species
What are the ecological advantages of flocks?
-avoid predation
-optimal nutrition
-habitat enlargement
-improved reproduction & genetic structure
What are some physical differences between insectivore, granivore and frugivore, and carnivorous bats?
Insectivores: good echolocation, nose and chin leaves, small size
Granivore/frugivores: good sense of smell, can scream through their noses for echolocation when they’re carrying fruit
Carnivorous: pug nose, sneak up on prey and make small incision to drink blood
Describe the differences between the two broad categories of mixed bird flocks: frugivores and insectivores.
Frugivores: Usually highly colored mid-sized birds (tanagers, warblers, barbets, etc.). Inhabit the canopy but have no predictable movements or real territory. Very loose structure 20-30% renewal every 2-3 hr. Large numbers: 100-300 individuals. No sentinels though occassional insectivore guides.
Insectivores: Cryptically colored small to mid-sized birds that inhabit the understory mostly and are not necessarily strong flyers (antbirds, woodcreepers, etc.). They have very predictable movements, which are directed by a sentinel. Smaller groups of 40-100 individuals.
¿Describe el concepto de un 'lek' y para qué razones es favorable tener un 'lek' para un especie de aves? También describe por qué no es favorable tener un lek.
Un lek es un lugar donde los aves machos juntar para hacer un baile especial para atraer las hembras. También hacen un sonido muy ruidoso para que las hembras saben que están allí buscando alguien para aparear. Es favorable tener un lek porque no es dificil para las hembras encontrar un macho porque están todos en el mismo lugar haciendo ruido y bailando, dificil para echar. Es una manera efectiva para atraer las hembras. No es favorable porque obviamente van a ser machos que son más grandes, más fuertes o más perfecto para una hembra e inevitablemente siempre hay machos que nunca puede aparear con ninguna hembra. Pasan todos sus vidas bailando y pitando para nada.
Explain the difference between a Shoal and a School.
Shoal: group of fish swimming together, but not in unison.
School: group of fish swimming together in unison.
Define/explain the differences between insects exhibiting apterygota, exopterygoa, and endopterygota.
Apterygota: No metamorphosis. Wingless. Nymphs closely resemble adults.
Exopterygota: Gradual and incomplete metamorphosis
Endopterygota: Complete metamorphosis.
What are 4 of the basic characteristics of an insect?
A: invertebrate, exoskeleton, 3 parts: head, thorax, abdomen, 6 legs, 2 pairs of wings, 2 antennas, compound eyes
Describe three characteristics of army ants. How do the following organisms relate to army ants?
A.Birds B. Other insects
Characteristics of army ants
Carnivorous and raid for food in groups
Queens are permanently wingless
Whole colony emigrates periodically
Birds are associates found at swarm raids. They follow the ants and prey on insects they leave behind.
Other insects can relate to the army ants in two ways:
Prey
Take on pheromones of army ants in order to stay safe
Describe the circulatory system of insects.
They have an open circulatory system which is a simple open ended tube that runs down the back of the insect. Change in pressure causes the movement of hymolymph throughout their body.
¿Cómo se llaman los 'nidos' de las hormigas guerreros y por qué son útiles y efectivos para proteger y mantener su colonia?
El nido se llama un 'bivouac' y es una esfera hecho de hormigas. El bivouac es útil para mantener la colonia en un lugar con todos juntos para proteger la reina. La reina está en el centro del bivouac. Por el veneno en sus cuerpos, la mayoría de predadores evitar las hormigas en sus dietas. Pues, solo quedar juntos es una manera efectiva de proteger la reina de peligro. Como la reina está en el centro, ningún predador puede quitar todas las otras hormigas para comer la reina. También cuando están en su fase permanente tiene una manera con estructura específico para alimentarse. Se van en un círculo (360 grados) pero cada avancen de unoa grados específicos para que no repiten su ruta de cazar. En este manera se pueden alimentar la reina y las trabajadores.
vocab inter intra ect
ANSWERS:
- Interference: Species directly compete and prevent fitness
- Explotative: Species indirectly compete and prevent fitness
- Intra-specific: Members of the same species compete
- Inter-specific: Two different species compete
- Co-existance: Divergent niches for the same resource, non-limiting resources, or competition drives one species to extinction
Describe the costs and benefits of geophagy.
Visiting a saladero takes time away from foraging and other activities. Also, risk of predation.
Soil ingestion can help alleviate gastrointestinal problems and provide supplemental minerals and elements. Therefore it can be a useful famine food. It can also serve as a social activity for animals that are part of a troop.
How is there an arms race between animals and plants with regards to seed toxicity? What does this have to do with salt licks?
Plants have an incentive to make seeds repulsive so that animals poop them out, throw them up or otherwise get rid of them. Plants also want to make unripe seeds repulsive so they don’t get eaten. Animals want to eat anything they can, which means evolving strategies to deal with seed toxicity. One of these strategies can be going to salt licks, because the minerals in the soil aid in the digestion of toxic compounds. Basically, it’s like Tums.
Explain the general ecosystems of the Andes and why they occur.
There are cloud forests on the sides and dry interandean valleys between. The majority of the moisture comes from the Amazon, and when the clouds from the amazon hit the andes lots of rain is dumped on those hill sides creating a wet humid area. As for the other side of the mountains, there are rotor winds that pick up some of the amazon clouds then carry the rainfilled clouds over the mountains then back down on the other side where it rains again and more cloud forests form. These rotor winds combined with the rain shadow of the andes cause the inter andean dry valleys.
Give one theory why the Tiputini/Yasuni area is often considered the most biodiverse area in the world. What is an explanation for this phenomena?
During the last ice age there were parts of this area that did not freeze. This created islands of life that continued to evolve while the rest of the world was frozen. This has given the area more time to evolve but also more allopatric speciation to occur and more species were able to evolve
List and give supporting evidence for two reasons why the tropics have more biodiversity than the temperate zones
Historical: tropics are older than the temperate zone, the cooling period made temperate zone, oldest biomes on Earth with more time to diversify
Evolutionary: geographical isolation due to changes in sea level, possibly less extinction rate during glaciations, large area,
Ecological: High competition and niche petitioning; ecological time, interactions, small spatial scale, resources, energy flow, food sources, elevation changes
Define phenology
The study of timing of reoccurring natural phenomena
Describe characteristics of interior wetlands versus coastal
-interior: brackish water. Often connected to areas of Andean volcanic origin with ash included in the ground of the wetlands site
-coastal: higher concentration of salt, higher biodiversity and more energy, reduced visibility, influence from seasons and moon.
What are the 3 different types of interior wetlands?
Answer: Lentico (lagunas etc that are static- freshwater), Corriente (rivers, waterfalls) and Artificial (dammed reservoirs- regimen hidrico natural, indepnediente de regimen hidrico- shrimp farms)
Explain the differences between Comparative, Correlative, and Experimental research. Give examples of each.
Comparative: comparison of 2 or more situations (e.g. % herbivory with and without ants)
Correlative: observing changes measured across a gradient (e.g. % herbivory vs. number of ants)
Experimental: observing changes in a manipulated system (e.g. our caterpillar herbivory activity)
Name and describe two types of mimicry.
Batesian—one model species which is toxic and another, non-toxic mimic
Mullerian—two or more toxic species which look the same, increases the odds that a predator will learn to avoid organisms with that coloration
What are the tree types of forest/ wetlands in the Amazon?
Terra firme:
Igapo:
Varzea
Gama biodiversity refers to what
A. Diversity of one area
B. Diversity between two areas
C. The biodiversity of the entire ecosystem
D. The diversity of a single species

C
Describe the Rain Shadow Effect and its relation to the cloud forests.
The Rain Shadow Effect is responsible for the creation of the cloud forests. The mountains block rain-producing weather systems, resulting in a shadow of dryness behind them. Prevailing winds push warm, moist air up one side of the mountain. As this air moves upward, it dries and condenses. The cloud forests, characterized by a large accumulation of clouds and condensation, are located in this area. The dry air advances down the other side of the mountain. This dry area is known as the rain shadow.
Name the three main oceanic currents off the coast of Ecuador, give their properties and explain their main effects on the weather of both mainland ecuador and the Galapagos during different times of the year. Use a diagram if that helps.
Humboldt (cold), Cromwell (cold) and El Niño (Panama) (warm)
In the south of ecuador where the humboldt flows by it is generally drier as the cold current pulls moisture out of the air. In the north where the panama flows it is much wetter and humid as the warm water gives off moisture. The two currents clash near the middle of the coast, and then head off shore toward the galapagos. The latitute of this clash changes with the seasons and when it is more to the south it is a year of El Niño where there are more areas that are warmer and wetter. The Cromwell is a cold deepwater current that carries lots of nutrients that are forced up when the current hits the Galapagos. This causes lots of nutrient to be given to the life in that area.
Why is it that the Islands of the Galapagos that are further East are older than those of the east?
There is one hotspot under the techtonic plates that does not move. As the plates move (the pacific plate is moving to the east) the hotspot continues to form new islands over the hotspot.
What were the effects of the 1983-1984 El Niño effect on the Galápagos region?
During this period, the Galápagos experienced heavy rains and the ocean was warmer and less productive. The unproductive water left many marine species without adequate food supply. Additionally, many species (especially birds) didn’t breed during this event. Over 75% of the Galápagos Penguin population was lost, and marine iguana, sea lion, and bird populations suffered greatly as well.
How is a lava tunnel formed?
A lava tunnel is formed when an active low-viscosity lava flow develops a hard crust. The lava stream continues to flow, leaving behind a lava tube.
What are the characteristics of soil horizons A and B?
Horizon A consists of organic material, decomposing leaves, etc. It is generally shallow (except in recently flooded varzea forests) and erodes easily when forest is cut. Horizon B is deeper and includes substances which precipitate down from horizon A. It generally has more accumulated minerals, including iron.
Why are Amazonian soils nutrient poor?
The soil in the Amazon is characterized by its high iron and clay content. It is nutrient poor because of the rate of recycling nutrients in the ecosystem is very fast. There is a small organic layer and A horizon because trees and other vegetation are constantly absorbing nutrients. A young plant in the Amazon has to endure a lot and faces a lot of competition.
xplain 3 effects (positive and negative) of the “banana boom” of the 1950s and ‘60s.
Migration from the sierra to the coast
Development, which led to the formation of a middle class
Deforestation for the banana crops
Political Stability: between 1948 and 1960, there were 3 presidents, none of which were overthrown
According to Mary Ellen, what is "Economic Liberalism"?
Originally coined by Adam Smith in 1776, economic liberalism is capitalism and can only be successful if there are medium/ small sized business competing amongst each other. There must not be monopolies.
What was the role of Manuela Canizares in the Independencia del Ecuador?
C. She owned a whore house used as the meeting place for independence heroes.
Q: What were some of the results of Ecuador’s dollarization?
Increased financial and political stability
Increased access to foreign credit
Lower rates of inflation and interest
Loss of independent monetary policy
Loss of national symbolism on monetary instruments
Loss of seigniorage from inability to print new money
Loss of lender of last resort ability
Drawing on an example, explain social/environmental effects primary product exportation/monoculture agro has had on Ecuador.
Cacao/Bananas:
Migration from rural areas to large farms, typically on the coast
Development of a middle class in farming areas
Deforestation
Monopolization
At the woe of a fluctuating neoliberal market, low prices
Subject to monoculture diseases
Drop in soil fertility, pesticide/insecticide use
Describe two threats to the Andean Speckled Bear populations in Ecuador.
Reduction and fragmentation of habitat.
Popular medicine: fat for rheumatism, blood for general health, female fertility
Poaching for fur
Lack of knowledge: believing they are threatening because people don't know the ecology.
What are some factors which contribute to tropical deforestation in Ecuador?
Poverty, colonization (facilitated by oil company roads), lack of enforcement of laws, corruption of enforcement officers, lack of government resources for enforcement, economic factors (make more money clear cutting land than using resources sustainably).
¿Qué impacto tiene la quemación del páramo? ¿Qué especies están afectados y por cuáles razones queman el páramo?
La gente quema el páramo para asustar los animales para cazar y también por que la gente está aburrida. Algunas veces los fuegos pueden ir afuera del control de la gente y pueden quemar más que quería. Los fuegos afectan todos los especies de plantas que queman y puede destruir su sistema de raices también y las plantas no pueden recuperarse. Los animales están afectados en una manera diferente por que con la vegetación que muere, sus hábitats están destruidos y no tiene lugar para vivir ni esconder. Las plantas que comen los conejos están destruidos de los fuegos también. La mayoría que caza la gente son conejos para quizás unos especies de aves también.
Name 2 social, 2 environmental and 2 economic impacts of petroleum extraction in the Amazon.
Social: contaminated drinking water, cancer and tumors, malformities in babies, skin disease, natural abortions, acid rain from petroleum burning destroys metal roofing on houses
Economic: livestock deaths from drinking contamined water, poverty due to failed crops, prostitution due to failed sources of income and to provide for increased healthcare costs, inflation, selling of lands to petroleum companies to pay off debts, bad tasting yuca and other crops from contaminates in soil Name two environmental and two social impacts of the oil industry.
Environmental: Deforestation, loss of biodiversity, contamination of air, water, and soil.
Explain the Yasuní ITT initiative and the difficulties with implementing it.
The Yasuni ITT initiative is a proposal by the Ecuadorian government to leave the Amazon oil in the ground in exchange for international compensation of $100 million (50% of oil value). The government states that both the bio-diverse area and the prevention of carbon released into the atmosphere are worth the monetary compensation. If the money is not received, Correa states they will enhance the lives of the Ecuadorian people by extracting the petroleum with minimum environmental impact

Countries are not willing to pay because it’s not in their benefit in the short term, and Correa is more actively developing plan B, how to drill in Yasuní, than promoting the ITT initiative.
Cite four human uses for why the paramo is anthropologically important to the people of Ecuador and relate these uses to descriptions of the ecosystem.
Number one source of water to Quito- high rainfall
Cultivation of agriculture- nutrient rich soil, higher altitude, cold- papas, onions
Major route to Oriente for oil and mining- Andes divide coast and Oriente including transportation and pipelines
Cattle grazing on nutrient rich soil, grasses: cattle sheep, lamas
Describe the differences between the formal scientific method and the “inquiry cycle” as described by Peter Feinsinger in Chapter 2 of Designing Field Studies for Biodiversity Conservation.
The scientific method is a much longer process than the inquiry cycle. It involves deductions/inductions based upon observation, the formation of alternate and null hypothesis, predictions, conceptual experimental design, evaluation, and the eventual formation of a theory paradigm. In contrast, the inquiry cycle involves only the formation of a question, action, reflection, and application. Feinsinger points out that the scientific method is much more intimidating, less strictly adhered to, and is impractical for conservation biology and other, location-based scientific inquiries.
In Diego Tirira’s Técnicas de campo para el estudio de mamíferos silvestres what physical features can be used to identify the sex of a mammal (name 5)?
-Genitalia
-Dental structure
-bone structure
-Distance between the genital and anal opening (for mammals that have internal genitalia)
-Glandular development
-Secondary sexual characteristics (antlers, coloration, etc)
Describe three reasons why author Andrew Gumbel considers the Galapagos to be a “Paradise Lost”.
-Extensive amounts of rubbish piled up on inhabited islands such as Santa Cruz, in the town of Puerto Ayora
-Contamination of ground water with sewage, making tapwater undrinkable and causing gastric and skin problems
-Poor relationships between local fishermen and tourist guides
-Population growth resulting in unemployment and destruction of natural habitats in order to expand living spaces
-Failure to enforce fishing laws
-Invasive plants from tourists threaten the fragile biodiversity of the islands
In the article “A Framework for Understanding Social Science Contributions to Ecosystem Management”, what are two components of Endter-Wada et al.’s framwork?
Humans as components of ecosystems; public involvement in planning and policy making, especially involving land management; incorporating social analysis into ecosystem science; integrating public involvement and social analysis
In the article "Solo 70 condores surcan las alturas" which was not cited as a threat to condor populations?
A. Hunting.
B. Use of feathers in indigenous rituals.
C. Capture of chicks for mascots.
D. Poisoning of dead animals used for food.
E. Lack of traditional sources of food.
Name 3 of the 5 principles of effective management suggested by Ludwing in “Uncertainty, Resource exploitation, and Conservation.” (From CECS readings)
Include human motivations as part of the system.
Act before scientific consensus is achieved.
Rely on scientists to recognize problems, but not solve them.
Distrust claims of sustainability
Confront uncertainty (act before things are certain).