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271 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Fire
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natural part of our world;
enhance transition from organic to inorganic material |
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long-leaf pine
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fire dependent;
cones only open at high heat |
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surface fires
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much more common than other types of fire
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prescribed burns
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foresters choose to burn certain forests to help the forests;
happened a lot in the 70s |
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Galveston, Texas
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worst natural disaster was hurricane there; kiled 6000
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Johnstown Flood
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second worst natural disaster; killed 2200
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Great Peshtigo Fire
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third worst natural disaster; killed at least 1200; same day as Chicago Fire
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Generalist
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species that eat a wide array of foods; ex) Bluejay
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Specialist
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species that only eat one or two species; ex) Snail Kite
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Optimal Foraging
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predators try and minimize energy spent foraging while mazimizing energy gotten from prey
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Stalker Type Predator
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has to keep moving; uses a lot of energy; ex) coyote
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Ambush Predator
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uses moderate energy; ex) bass w/ minnows
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Steady Pursuit Predator
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uses low energy; ex) whale with krill
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Predator Choices
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bigger is better; lower search time is better; lower handling time is better
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Assimilation efficiency
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the more energy that can be absorbed from eating prey is optimal
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2 variations in eating
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energy contained in prey; number of prey eaten
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Search Image
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simplified mental picture of prey that helps the forager find it more quickly and readily; go after item that appears biggest
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Secondary Plant Compounds
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some are poisonous and unpalatable and used as defense mechanism; animals that eat these plants can become protected
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milkweed
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contains toxic digitalis; the milkbug can still eat it; retains digitalis as protection from predators
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Aposemetic Coloration/Marking
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marking that warns of danger; ex) skunk, poisonous dart frog
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Bates
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worked with butterflies to study mimicry;
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Mimicry
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species make self look like something that is harmful so that it won't be attacked
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Batesian Mimicry
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the model is actually harmful but the mimic is harmless
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Butterflies
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Viceroy is mimic; Monarch is model
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Mollerian Mimicry
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different species mimic each other but they are all harmful
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Competition
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degree to which niches overlap determines how much species compete
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Gause
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worked w/ protozoans of genus paramecium
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Competitive Exclusion
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when two species are separate they floursih but when put together they compete and cause population decreases
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Resource Partitioning
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when there are niche differences species are able to split resources and coexist
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Gause Theorem
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in order for 2 species to coexist they need to be different in regard to one or more niche parameters
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Four C's
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complete competitors cannot coexist
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Warblers
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studied by MacArthur; split Spruce trees into 15 parts so can have RP bc of differing locations
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Guild
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a group of similar species ecologically
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Comorant vs. Shag
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they have different hunting locations and nest locations; breeding and feeding locations are crucial to RP
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Sympatric
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having the same geographic range; ex) Ctenotus lizards
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Allopatric
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having different geographic ranges
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Hawaiian Cone Shells
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some are sympatric; those that are have different sizes of prey; those that aren't are sometimes the same size
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Tropical Pigeons
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divide into four subguilds of food preference and into many locations on trees in order to have RP
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Niche
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all the ways in which a species fits into or interacts with its environment including it's position in space and time
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n-dimensional hypervolume
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graphical depiction of a nice in which the various niche parameters are plotted as a function of each other in a multi-coordinated system
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Evolutionary Mechanism
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must exist so that organisms can reduce competition
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Darwin's Finches
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species differ morphologically; different structure and food habits led to different beaks
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Character Displacement
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evolutionary change in sympatric areas or areas where the niches overlap; involves structural change in teh organism
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Competitive Release
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when ther eis an absence of competition, an organism will expand its niche and habitats until it meets competition
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Keyston Predator
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a predator that keeps down the population of a certain species; ex) starfish w/ mussels in tidepools
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Species Diversity
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the number of species in a community
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Habitat Complexity
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places with more complexity have greater species diversity and opportunity for RP
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Niche Differentiation
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more species can coexist w/o competing when there are more differences in niche parameters
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Primary Production
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more PP leads to more species diversity; more PP leads to more steps in the food chain
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Levels of Primary Production
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grassland:500; shrubland:600; coniferous: 800; upland deciduous: 1000; flood plain: 2000; desert:70; marshland: 2000
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Bird Population
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goes up when PP goes up except for deserts which have higher populations than marshlands
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Timing during the Year
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the time when PP is high dictates reproduction and ability to RP; when there is more PP throughout the year, RP is easier
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Tropics vs. Artic
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Tropics have high PP year round so can breed whenever; Artic has high PP only in short time= must breed then
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Intermediate Disturbance
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a factor that prediodically reduces a population of a competitive species before it outcompetes others; ex) storms wash out mussels
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Humans and forests
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Deciduous forests have been reduced by 99% due to human foresting
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Fragmentation
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the division of habitats into small plots; causes lower primary production; causes edge effects
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Edge Effects
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there is often disturbance at the edge; edge species enter into the habitat and can take larger percentages bc the plot is small to start with
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Neotropical Migrants
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population has declined by 50% bc of destruction of habitats in the south in tropical forests; bad fragmentation
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Brood Parasitism
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lays eggs in the nests of other species of birds and leaves them; fragmentation allows for greater penetration of brood parasitism
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Malnourishment
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1/3 world malnourished; half are too fat; half are too thin
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Poverty
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50% people never will receive or make a phone call; 1 billion don't have clean water; 3 billion do not have sewers
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Coral Snakes vs. King Snakes
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coral are dangerous and king are mimics; when fake king and coral put into non-coral areas, 50% king are attacked; in coral areas 6% attack; mimicry works
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Pfennig and Horcombe
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the Dr's who conducted the experiment at UNC with the fake snakes; prove that when dangerous snake removed, the mimic fails
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Convergent Evolution
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sharks and dolhins look the same because it is a good structure for swimming; not mimicry
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Salvage Logging
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trying to salvage wood from decayed or burnt forests for use; doesn't help prevent fire
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Seedlings
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70% seedlings removed when salvage logging occurs; harms natural regrowth
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Biscuit Fire
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50,000 acre area studied by Oregon State for salvage logging information
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"carbon sinks"
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Industry wants to salvage log and replant to make new forests that are carbon sinks for global warming
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Hoover experiment
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Illinois study shows that cowbirds retaliate when warblers remove cowbird eggs from their nests; 56% warbler eggs smashed w/o egg, 6% smashed w/ egg
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Cowbirds
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Brood parasitism; retaliate when eggs removed; smash warbler eggs
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Jablonksi
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macroevolutionist who looked at past 600 billion years and mass extinctions
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Mass Extinction
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Ordovician: 85% lost
Devonian: 85% Permian: 95% (worst) Triassic: 90-95% Cretaceous: 76% |
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Endemic Species
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species that are unique and localized; in danger of extinction
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Causes of Extinction
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habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation, overkill, invasive species, and secondary effects of other extinctions
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Extinctions
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by 2040 17-35% tropical rainforest species gone; in next half century 50% forest-bird species gone
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Landscape Conversion
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four stages: wildlands, extensively used areas, intensively used areas, degraded land
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Protected Areas
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9800 areas exist; make up 6.3& planter's area
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Population growth
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9.4 billion by 2050; 10.8 billion by 2150; 9.7 billion will be in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Caribbean
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Factors that Impact Earth
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population size, consumption, technology
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Invasive Species
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species that are brought somewhere they don't belong and win out in natural selection and take over native species
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Weeds
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reproduce quickly, hard to eradicate, do well in bad areas
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Harmful Weeds
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15% of all weeds cause severe harm
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Humans and Weeds
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Humans are weeds; humans will kill off helpful plants and leave weeds; life will become much harder
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Wealth Divide
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the gap between rich and poor is going to become worse and worse
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detritus rain
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causes organisms to consume detritus-> use O2; determines amt of O2; more in eutrophic lake
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ammonia
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w/o O2, ammonia is in lakes rather than nitrates
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hypolimnion
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more eutrophication->run out of O2 in hyplimnion; whitefish and lake trout like cold->go to hypolimnion; no O2 in hypolimnion-> cold water community dies
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copper sulfate
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right amount added to a lake-> kill algae without killing fish
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optimal foraging standpoint
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small fish eat big zooplankton; big fish eat small fish; zooplankton eat phytoplankton
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bottom-up communities
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more nutrients @ bottom-> more big fish
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trophic cascade
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top-down effect; higher levels can impact lower; more big fish-> less algae
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weed harvesting
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machines cut down macrophytes
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grass carp
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add to lakes to eat weeds
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Greenhouse gasses
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CO2, CH4; H2O=0-4% at anytime
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positive feedback loops
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1 variable reinforces another variable
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negative feedback loops
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1st variable lessens the 2nd variable; self-limiting
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stratocumulous clouds
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reflect>absorb; reduce warming
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cirrus clouds
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absorb>reflect; enhance warming
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Albeto
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reflectance of light by polar ice caps; as caps melt, less Albeto= more absorbed and more warming
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photsynthesis
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might help absorb extra CO2; human activities mean plant is source and not sink
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oceans
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CO2 reacts w/ H2O or CaCO3 to make sink; doesn't happen much bc limestone is deep so CO2 not there; as H2O warms, ocean is source
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permafrost
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melting; biggest change is in coldest areas; organic material below becomes active->release CO2
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prairie pothole region
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many ponds there; ponds for breeding; ponds dry=fewer ducks
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polar bears
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ice caps melt=swim until die; can't wait by seaholes for seals=starve
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coral reef
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bleaching=organisms dying; CO2 dissolves limestone=coral; pH down causes coral structure to decline
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coccoliths
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photosynthetic organisms w/ limestone shells; dissolved by CO2
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proximal vs ultimate
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proximal reasons are immediate; ultimate are evolutionary
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photal period
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proportion of light to dark
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diapause
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dormant state in winter for moths; look for 8 hrs of night to know if emerge or not; only need 10 mins of light in bt dark to think it's summer
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limits of tolerance
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index of well-being varies depending on environmental factors; highest with certain temp, light, nutrients, salinity
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eury
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prefix meaning wide range of toleration; euryphagus=eats wide range; euryhaline=wide range of salinity; desert popfish can handle wide temps
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steno
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narrow range of toleration; antartic fish and temp; blue crab babies and salt
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factor interaction
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change in 1 variable as a result of a change in a different variable; ex) less humid-> handle higher temps
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factor compensation
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change in one variable as a result in a change in that same variable; adaptation
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Crookes
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Nitrogen is limiting nutrient; must add it to soil; need N2-> NO3-
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Haber
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react N w/ H2O=NH4 if the temp and pressure is really high; need Uranium as catalyst
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dead zone
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N in water up 4 times in 20th century; too much algae->areas where all is dead; EPA says use less fertilizer
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blue baby syndrome
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N in H2O-> blood not carry O2 well
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intercropping
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alternate standard and N-fixing crops
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average rainfall
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WM=40 in; Death Valley=0-4; Calcutta=65; spread out evenly at WM; most in summer at Calcutta
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Mediterranean climate
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found in Cali; rains in Winter most
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soil H2O holding
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sand holds badly like in desert; clay holds better
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climograph
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shows temp vs precipitation; can show other variables; temp and precip have correllation; maybe causation
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acid rain
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pH under 5 (sometimes 5.5); dominated by NOx or SOx
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acid lakes
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pH bt 4.5-6; acid rain and low buffering cause acid lakes; free H+ will release metals in soil into lake and kill fish
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buffers
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limestone is good buffer; granite is not
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Forest decline
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reduced growth and gradual deterioration; worse at higher elevations; 50% trees in Black Forest are dying; acidic soil goes up roots
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Fridely Run
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added 50 tons limestone to raise pH and help wild trout; 30-40% fish still threatened
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St. Mary's River
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propose dump 140 tons limestone; liming can cause long-term problems; must lime once every 4-6 yrs
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Gulf of Mexico
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1999: 7728 sq miles of dead zone; 2001: over 8000; problem is from Illinois and Iowa farms; need 20% cut back in N; make 5 million areas of wetlands
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Conservation Reserve Program
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reduce N discharge by 30% in 15 years is goal
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Chesapeake Bay
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5.1% dead; deep channel:30% dead; below 5 parts per million O2; wind and high temps cause problems
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piscivores vs planktovorous fish
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piscivores=largemout bass; piscivores eat planktovorous fish who eat zooplankton who eat phytoplankton
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Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
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humans are cause; fastest change in 1000 years
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National Academy of the Sciences
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2002 report on rapid charges; oceans remove 29% excess CO2 for unknown amt of time; might give it back
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Gulf Stream
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may slow down= north gets cold; fresh water will move to higher altitudes
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contrails
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may be cause of 1/2 troposphere warming; left by planes
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sea level rise
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high projected rise is 88 cm; would wipe out major world cities
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3 schools of thought on warming
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1) do more research
2) act now as precautionary 3) act w/ no regrets |
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Scientists' Statement on Global Climate Disruption
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in 1997 2500 scientists agreee on act now as precautionary principle
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Siberian Permafrost
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70 billion tons of methane from Siberia bogs; methane warms 20 times more than CO2
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Conference in Paris
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humans are reason for warming; 2005: see slowing trend; cause monsoon, drought
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overturning circulation
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current that brings warm water to north; circulates warm and cold water; could slow down w/ warming
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round-scale spearfish
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looks like white marlin; mistake-> think more whitefish are alive; whitefish might be endangered
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polar bears
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Interior Dept wants them labeled threatened; gas and oil don't; problem is can't label without a recovery plan and hard to remake polar ice caps; more a question of limiting emissions than saving bears
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Pastor Anderson
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need to protect God's Earth; hurting the poor; need to stop warming; 86 evangelicals sign to lower CO2
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epilimnion
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top of lake; lots of biomass there; warmer bc closer to top; biomass dies and is detritus which settles through thermocline
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stratification
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gradient where warm water is on top; hypoliminion is below thermocline and is colder; strat-> too dark for photsynthesis-> low O2
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limnology
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oceanography applied to freshwater like lakes
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secondary treatment
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do what would happen if went in H2O; allow bacteria and other organisms to eat organic material; will take care of O2 demand problem
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primary settling tank
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removes undissolved solids; solid materials settle and make sludge; helps but still lots of O2 demand; lots of organic material dissolved and won't settle
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oxygen sag curve
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amt of oxygen decreases with addition of sewage; goes up after long distances
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oligotrophic
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low nutrients, low algae, low biomass, more light, sufficient O2; deeper water
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1972 Clean Water Act
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significant progress made on point-source pollution
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NPSP
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non-point source pollution; general run-off from land or agriculture
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PSP
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point-source pollution ; comes from specific entry point; ex) factory
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sources of nutrient input
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general run-off, storm water systems collect H2O on streets and drain into stream
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macrophytes
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larger plants in water; aquatic weeds; non-native vegetation; grows densely; can be 10-12 ft tall; produce lots of O2 in day but use all in night; prefer cold temps
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eutrophication
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algae bloom bc high nutrients; mats produced=trap O2; when die, mats float to top
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epidemiological data
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info on H2O and bacteria
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coliforms
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ex) E Coli; prime component of sewage waste; occur in the guts of birds and mammals; max level in water is 200/100mL
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lift station
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not always flat going to sewage plant; need pump to lift it up then go for gravity; put water under pressure->enough P ti naje leaks harder
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H2O pollution: health concerns
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contamination by bacteria or pathogens; contamination by harmful compounds like pesticides or metals
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cultural eutrophication
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nutrient enrichment of H2O caused by humans
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Nutrient pollution
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1 cause of pollution bc causes eutrophication; more nutrient->more primary production->excess algae
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5.5 pH
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sometimes considered the lowest pH possible to still be safe in rain
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Yorktown Formation
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at WM by Matoaka; lots of shells crammed together; lots of limestone=buffers lake
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limestone
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CaCO3; buffer for acids; added to lakes to reduce effects of acid rain
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Ecology
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the scientific study of the interaction of organisms and their environments; study of the abundance and distinction of organisms
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environments
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physical/chemical environment; also biological/interaction component
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interaction
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environmental impact of organisms; predator vs prey; 2 way process; community change over time
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species
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group can breed; work w/ populations in same area; niche=how fit
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communities
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collection of species; levels, food chain, structure;
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biomes
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terrestrial term for largescale regional communities; grassland, tundra, etc
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ecosystem
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organism + community processes; big or small
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Water Loss/Drying
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organisms exchange gases with environment at the surface; organisms max SA to V ratio; problem is that H2O also is exchanged; dry out animals
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Diffusion
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water is diffused under low pressures; leads to drying; organisms keep internal breathing apparati in order to avoid diffusion
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temperature stabilty
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aquatic organisms don't adapt to temperature change well
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oxygen availability
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less O2 in water than in air; high temps and high salt=low O2; pollution= low O2
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metabolism
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total of internal chemical reaction quantified by looking at O2 needed for organism; warmblooded have constant metabolism; cold-blooded chagne metab with temp
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Q10
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factor by which metabolic rate increases when the temperature rises 10 degrees Celsius
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trophic levels
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levels on the food chain
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efficiency of transfer
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amount of energy that makes it from one level to the next; some is always lost as heat etc.
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Factors affect photosynthesis
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1. light: more light=more photo to a point
2. temperature: hotter=more photo to a point 3. more water=more photo 4. nutrients |
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photo inhibition
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too much light and can no longer have photosynthesis; plants close up
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denature
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too much heat and protein structure changes
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trade winds
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winds with equator go horizontal
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equatorial dolgram
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point at which winds go vertical
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rain shadow
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rains on one side of the mountain but not the other
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exploitation
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captured and caught biomass
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photosynthetic efficiency
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amt of energy converted divided by the amt energy in sunlight; usually 2-5%
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gross primary production
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total biomass made
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net primary production efficiency
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net primary production divided by gross primary production
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exploitation efficiency
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amt exploitation divided by amt available
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assimilation/digestion
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enzymes break down materials to get them into organism; can't break down fiber
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assimilation efficiency
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amt assimilated divided by amt exploitated
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net production efficiency
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amt stored divided by amt assimilated; hard for warmblooded and small organisms
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ecological efficiency
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amt at level 2 divided by amt at level 1
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standing crop
|
amt of organisms when you go measure them
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turnover rate
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amt produced divided by standing crop
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detritus
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organic material that isn't going up in chain
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decomposers
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organisms that decompose detritus
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bycatch
|
30 x 10^6 lbs is lost in bycatch; fish not supposed to be caught
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bottom trawl
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pulled behind a boat along the bottom of the ocean; environmentally deadly
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purse seine
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locate schools of tuna and wrap net around whole school; gets the dolphins
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longline
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lots of baited hooks; 60 miles of line; lots of bycatch
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most harvested fish
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clupeoid, menhaden, shad, herring
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Sustainable Fisheries Act
|
8 councils set rules on amt fish can be caught in NE
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Atlantic Salmon
|
basically extinct bc of pollution
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Alaskan Halibut
|
limits set; new rules work to control population decline; safe to eat
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Colombia Drainage Systems and Lower Snake River Dams
|
destroy 90% of salmon population for mining, and electricity
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salmon farms
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make Atlantic Salmon aquaculture; may outsrip beef industry; given antibiotics; hurts native populations; water pollute
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canthaxanthin
|
color used to dye fish; could hurt vision
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Menhaden
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devastated bc used as food for bass
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Shrimp
|
farmed; need animals for food; pollute waterways
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Good Fish Choices
|
Tuna, Tilapia, Channel Catfish; vegetarians; use safe catching methods
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Maximum Sustainable Yield
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amount can be taken away from a population where it still comes back to normal levels through reproduction; usually 40%
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Effort
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F; fraction of fish you can catch; low when using cyanide or dynamite
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George's Bank
|
fishers had better tech, sonar, motorboats, frozen food; catch way too much kill pops; internat'l agreement sets quotas
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escapement
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areas where fish are safe from fishers
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Marine Stewardship Council
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tells consumer which fisheries are sustainable
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limiting nutrient
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nutrient that runs out and limits amount of growth of organisms; primary producers hit equilibrium and stop growing; P and N are most common
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macronutrients
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needed in large amounts; C, H, N, O
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micronutrients
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needed in small amounts; Cr, Cu
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in between nutrients
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in between macro and micro; Iron (needed more by mammals)
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nitrogen fixation
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N2 + H2O-> NH3; cycle;
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Acid Rain
|
nitric acid, sulfuric acid, formic and acetic acids
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Buffers
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neutralize acids; limestone is good buffer
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Yorktown Formation
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shells at Matoaka that formed together and have limestone to buffer and keep lake neutralized
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nutrient pollution
|
1 of causes of pollution bc eutrophication leads to nutrient enrichment in water
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fuel embargo
|
1973 war bt Israel and Arab nations; we support Israel; get embargoed by Arab nations
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|
Corporate Average Fuel Economy
|
Congress pass regulation for mileage standards; passenger car must get 27 mpg; light trucks get 20 mpg
|
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decrease in fuel efficiency
|
since 1987 there has been a 22% decrease in fuel efficiency; avg 20.4 mpg; SUVs, vans, trucks are problem
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Dodge caravan
|
first minivan in 1984
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Jeep Cherokee
|
first SUV also in 1984
|
|
Proposals for gas mileage
|
light trucks must be 21-24 mpg by 2011; this includes all SUVs
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signoidal
|
s-shaped curve; used to show most population growth graphs; occurs in density dependent populations
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density-dependent regulation
|
as population gets denser the restrictive forces on growth get stronger; strength of regulation is function of numbers in population
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growth rate
|
symbolized by R; change in number over time divided by number itself
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Ri
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intrisic or inherit growth rate under good conditions;
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logistic equation for growth
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dN/dt=Ri*N*(K-N/K)
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variation
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some kind of oscillation around carrying capacity due to lag time
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density independent regulation
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factors independent of population size have impact; example is weather; kills same percentage of populaiton independent of population size
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J-Shaped curve
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occurs in density independent regulated populations
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Spruce Budworm
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kill Spruce trees; respond to moisture and rainfall; don't like wet years; density independent
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kangaroo rat
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needs to reproduce when there is lots of rain which creates food; density independent bc can only reproduce when it rains a lot; density dependent because higher populations mean fight for the food needed
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deer in Wisconsin
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harder to forage when there is a lot of snowfall; snow is density independent; higher populations determine how much of an impact the snow has bc density dependent when competing for food
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upside-down U curve
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sometimes density dependent will have an upside down U curve for population; if fast growth, U is narrower
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Asterionella
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phytoplankton; attacked by fungi; if population gets dense enough the disease will make population drop off
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Bass and predation
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looks dependent but is independent; as population goes up the bass will focus on prey and takes out a larger proportion of population
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demographics
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structure of populations; descriptors are age classes, sex ratio; allows for prediction of population changes
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elk
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single male gets many females; breeding biology, males w/o good territory won't get girls, die, so there are more females in population; isn't a problem though
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Canada Goose
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one male mates w/ 1 female; ratio is 1:1 for sexes
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age structure
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sometimes look at pre-reproductive, reproductive, and post-reproductive as categories;
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stable population
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similar sizes for each age group
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pyramidal age structure
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results in population growth because more reproductive than people dying
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inverted pyramid
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declining population because more die than are born
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Human population R
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r= difference in birth and death divided by 1000; is about 1.2%; lower than before but applied to larger population so still lots of people
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Human population growth
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80 million people per year; 220,000 per day
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doubling time
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the amount of time it takes for a population to double; humans will double in 56 years at current rate
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rule of 70
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take 70 in numerator; put rate of increase in denominator; gives you the years for doubling; if have fraction for increase, make it a percent
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Europena population
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has more deaths than births; developed countries have lower growth rates
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developing countries growth
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97% of new population will be coming from developing countries; China is low for developing
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US growth rate
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US has .6% growth rate; highest of all developed countries; doubles in 125 years
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US immigration rate
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highest; get 1.2 million people from immigration last year vs. 1.8 million from births
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fertility rate
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number of children a woman produces in her lifetime; 2.1-2.5 on average; higher in developing; declining everywhere
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demographic transition
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birth rates down sharply, death rate gradually goes down and plateaus, population levels off then declines in post-industrial time
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pre-industrial
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developing countries are stuck in pre-industrial age where they have higher birth rates than deaths and therefore increasing population
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most important factor affecting population growth
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number of people aged 15 or less; 30% of pop of world; in developed it's low at 17%; high in developing which is why they have more growth
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Country with biggest population problem
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the US has the most problem with population and growth and immigration
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Impact
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Impact=Population*Afluence/ Consumerism* Technology; I=PAT
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