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254 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
greenhouse effect
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occurs when heat is absorbed in the atmosphere. Heat energy is reradiated from the earth's surface as long wavelengths, and gases such as CO2 hold the gases within the earth's atmosphere.
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Air movement at the equator
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Heat causes air to expand (lighten) and rises. As it moves up, pressure decreases and it expands and cools, causing it to contract and drop. Spreads out and comes back to the surface of the earth.
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Adiabatic Cooling
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Air cools as it expands.
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Hadley Cell
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Rising air mass at the equator, cools and releases water on the rainforest, contracts and falls to the ground away from the equator. Pressure increases and the radiation of heat off of the earth's surface causes water to be absorbed from the ground (deserts). Air then replaces the cool air that rises from the equator.
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Doldrum
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Air moves upward near the equator to 5 degrees north and south of the equator. It is an area of low pressure where air is rising (and the air contains moisture)
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High Pressure Front
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Clear skies, lower temperatures, dry air
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Horse Latitude
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Air moves downwards. AKA subtropical calms
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Ferrell Cells
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weaker than Hadley cells, rising air pattern near the 60th degree latitude, descending dry air at the 30th and the poles
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Wet and dry seasons
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caused by the sun moving from being perpendicular to 23 degrees N to 23 degrees south, changes Hadley cells and where water is released
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Coriolis Force
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An object that moves above a rotating disk tends to keep its speed of lateral motion and the point of arrival is somewhat behind the straight line target. Causes the wind to move to the right in the N. Hemisphere, opposite in the south.
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Ocean currents are affected by... (4 items)
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Solar energy, gravity, motion of the earth, wind patterns
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Gulfstream
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caused by westerlies that take warm water towards Europe (warm water moves northwards from the equator) and creates a circular gyre.
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Rainfall Patterns
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Caused by differential warming and cooling of land and water
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Mediterranean climate
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Hot, dry summers and cool, moist winters
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upwelling
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surface water moves away from the shore and deep water rises. The new water is cold and nutrient rich, causing a lot of fish to breed there
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Factors altering climate patterns (3 items)
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Tall mountain ranges, adiabatic cooling, rain shadow effect
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Rain shadow
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The western side of mountains causes water to be released. The air on the eastern side of the mountains takes up moisture, much less precipitation as a result.
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Lake Effect Snow
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Caused by air being warmed over a body of water (like a lake) and then releasing precipitation as it moves over to the eastern side of the lake, where the ground is cooler than the water.
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Maritime Climate
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Influenced heavily by ocean air that moves off the ocean and onto land, generally less extreme than continental climates
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Continental Climate
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Influenced by air as it moves across a continent
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Monsoons
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Caused by sumer heat and rising air masses--moist air comes off the ocean, rises, cools, releases water. Air is sucked off the ocean to replace the rising air, causing the cycle to be repeated again
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Atmospheric blanket
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reradiates heat rapidly, more dense, more moisture to hold heat and bounces some heat back to the surface.
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Aspect
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The direction in which a surface faces. A south facing slope in the N. Hemisphere is dryer (more direct sunlight). A north facing slope is more shadowed, cooler, and moister.
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El Nino/La Nina
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Result of warmer temperatures in the Eastern Pacific and cooler temperatures in the W. Pacific (opposite of how it normally is). Wet in Americas and dry in Australia. La Nina is the opposite.
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biome
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regional similarity in temperature and moisture patterns, named for dominant plant groups
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Holdridge Life Zones
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Biomes are divided into smaller units called associations, used climate patterns to determine the vegetation in an area (will be used to predict what plants live where if moisture patterns change with global warming)
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Tundra
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northernmost biome, limited growing season, generally wet with low temperature (little evaporation because air is moist), characterized by lichens, grasses (plants that grow near the surface). Poorly developed soils w/ permafrost. Animals are adapted to long, cold winters or migrate and make seasonal use of growing season.
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Boreal Forest
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Dominated by conifers, little longer growing season than tundra (higher rainfall and warmer temps), long and sever winters, moderate precipitation that is caused by rising air cells, climatic extremes, infertile and acidic soil (pine needles)
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Temperate seasonal and deciduous forests
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Found between 30 and 60 degrees latitude, longer growing seasons and winters aren't quite as harsh as boreal/tundra. Higher rainfall in the summer, winters are moist and moderate, growing season is warm and moist. Fertile soils because of constant decomposition. High productivity and biomass. Deciduous or coniferous trees.
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Temperate Rainforest
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Found at 45 to 60 degrees latitude (Pacific Northwest), rain is caused by wind and ocean currents, year-round growing season
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Temperate grassland, temperate deserts
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hot and cold seasons, peak rainfall occurs during the peak of the growing season (life is dependent on water), fertile soils, prolonged droughts, fire is important to maintaining grasses to kill off invasives. Cold deserts are low in precipitation (deficit during the summer as temps increase, year-round growing season)
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Mediterranean woodland/shrubland
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unique species and high diversity of animals, wet winters and dry summers but a fairly constant temperature. Land is maintained by fire, low to moderate soil quality.
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Subtropical desert
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found from 23-30 degrees latitude, driest deserts are affected by mountains (rain shadows), water deficit throughout the year, dominated by succulents and thorny plants, hot or cold, dry w/ unpredictable precipitation, low productivity but high diversity.
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Tropical rain forest
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found at the equator, warm and wet with year-round growing season, low seasonality with infertile soils, nutrients are found in the vegetation, high biodiversity
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Mountains
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Run North to South in "New World" but East to West in "Old World." Serve as climatic and biological islands because organisms are specific to that environment. Rainfall and temp decreases with altitude increases
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Ecoregion
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large area of land or water that contains a geographically distinct assemblage of natural communities that share a majority of species and ecological phenomena (division of biomes)
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Species diversity (2 items)
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Richness - number of species present)
Evenness - total number of individuals split between species |
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Ecoregion Conservation
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Broad scale approach to developing and implementing a comprehensive strategy that conserves species, habitats, and ecological processes of an ecoregion
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Ecotones
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Transition areas between two different ecosystems (can be abrupt or have overlap, latter causing high biodiversity)
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Edges
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Two communities come together
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Phanerophytes
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warm/moist climates, greater than 25 cm, trees and tall shrubs
Subtropical Forest, Rain forest |
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Chamaephytes
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cool/dry, shrubs
Arctic Tundra, Subtropical Forest |
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Hemicryptophytes
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pereniating tissue is at ground level, cold and moist
Arctic Tundra, Temperate Deciduous Forest |
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Cryptophytes
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underground pereniating tissue, cold/moist
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Therophytes
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seeds will last until favorable conditions for growth--will be found in deserts
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landscape fragmentation
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dividing a large area into small tracts of land. Larger areas can have more individuals and decrease population densities. Long, thin patches of wildlife allow exotics to enter, larger patches retain species better
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Properties of water (4 items)
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High specific heat (warms, cools slowly)
Max density at 4 degrees C More dense and more viscous than air Light attenuates quickly |
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Benthos
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organisms living either attached or resting on the bottom/substrate
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epifauna
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live on surface of substrate
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periphyton
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attached to organisms rooted in the substrate
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infauna
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buried in sediment
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plankton and two specific types
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floating organisms (carried by the tide rather than swimming capabilities). Phytoplankton = photosynthesizers, zooplankton = herbivores and carnivores
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nekton
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swimming organisms
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neuston
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rest or swim on the surface
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deposit feeders
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eat organic material on the bottom
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filter feeders
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remove food from the water
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grazers
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eat living material
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lentic
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standing freshwater ecosystem (lakes and ponds); influenced by transparency (light penetration), turbidity, pH, alkalinity (buffering capacity)
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lotic
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running water ecosystems (streams and rivers); controlled by the current, little to no thermal stratification, oxygen distribution is uniform, animal adaptations occur that cause organism to be anchored in place, major energy source comes from material carried in from the outside
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limnetic zone
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Extends to the depth of light penetration, no benthos and few to little neuston because it extends far from the shoreline
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littoral zone
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from the shore to the edge of rooted plants, characterized by murky water and photosynthesis
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compensation point
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anything below it will expend energy; photosynthesis offsets respiration
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profundal zone
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bottom and deep water region, fewer plankton and no neuston, absent in pond ecosystems
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epilimnion
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warm surface water
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metalimnion
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temperature changes with depth
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hypolimnion
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cold deeper waters (4 degrees Celsius)
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dimitic
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water column mixes twice completely during one year (spring and fall)
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meromitic
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water does not cool regularly, meaning that there is no mixing and the lake is stratified
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oligotrophic
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young lake, deep with few nutrients and very little growth/biomass, little decomposition, oxygen levels aren't depleted
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eutrophic
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lakes that are shallow, muddy, nutrient rich, more organic material in sediments; limited by phosphorus availability
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vernal pool
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seasonally flooded depression (ephemeral), animals have specialized survival strategies and can withstand a lack of water
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tropical ocean water
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salinity is the highest because of the continual evaporation of water, higher temperature makes it easier for solutes to dissolve in water, year round stratification
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spring tide
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sun and moon are lined up to make the tides more dramatic
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neap tide
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occur when the moon is perpendicular to the sun
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neritic zone
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from the littoral/intertidal zone to the continental shelf
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oceanic zone
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beyond the continental shelf
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Deep ocean profile
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Epipelagic, mesopelagic, bathylpelagic, abyssopelagic, hadopelagic
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hydrothermal vents
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ephemeral ecosystems, based on water being heated by the innards of the earth, minerals are pushed out by the steam and cause warm temperatures in the surrounding environment. Chemosynthesis of H2S, bacteria are the base of the food change
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holoplanktonic
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planktonic for entire life
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meroplankton
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part of life cycle is planktonic
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Advantages of moving up and down in ocean (3 items)
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Cold water lowers metabolic rate
Less light makes it harder for predators to find you Lots of nutrients (and more oxygen) at the surface |
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Epipelagic fish
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fusiform, countershading, tails come to a point and don't cast a shadow
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mesopelagic fish (two types)
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either vertical migrators or non-migrators. Vertical migrators have strong skeletons, big eyes, large mouths. Non-migrators - weaker bones, flabby muscles, smaller eyes, photophores for bioluminescence, longer spike like teeth to catch prey
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Bathylpelagic fish
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hover around, use lure to catch prey, long teeth. Lay eggs with larval stages that make way to surface
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Abyssopelagic fish
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smaller, more "eel" like
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Coral Reefs
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Grow near the shoreline where there are more nutrients; zooxanthellae undergo photosynthesis; provide habitats for organisms, allows for high diversity
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Rocky intertidal
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species living in this zone have to withstand desiccation in higher areas, biological competition in lower areas
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salt marshes and mangrove forests
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form buffers to winter storms, found along low-lying shores, broken up by water areas (rivers, creeks). Salt marshes are affected by varying levels of salinity (changes with tide). Mangroves colonize water, provide large surface area to hold the tree in place. Epiphytes grow on prop roots for young fishies, pneumatophores come up from roots and sand and into the air for gas exchange
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estuaries
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mixture of freshwater and saltwater, mixing makes it nutrient rich, salinity can change quickly and makes it hard to live there
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With CO2 increases... (7 items)
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Arid climates, affect range of organisms, dry forests (as opposed to rain forests), increase in number of extreme events, increased drought, smaller number of snow days, longer growing season
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physiological ecology
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effects on distribution and abundance of organisms
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Factors of microhabitat (5 items)
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altitude, aspect, vegetation life form, ground color, objects in the environment
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enzymatic variation
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range in which an organism can function is more narrow then the environmental variation (enzymes have optimal temperatures)
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conduction
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heat transfer between bodies in direct physical contact
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convection
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transfer of heat between a solid and moving fluid
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radiation
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transfer of heat between objects without contact
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ectotherms
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require external heat to warm bodies and rely on environmental sources and behavior generally affects body temperature
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endotherms
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generate their own heat; metabolism is important but can benefit from behavioral regulations
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poikilotherm
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varies with environmental temperature (smaller and elongated)
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homeotherm
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maintains a constant body temperature
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thermal neutral zone
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range of environmental temperatures at which the metabolism does not change, typical of the environment that an organism lives in (tropical versus arctic species)
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Allen's Rule
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endothermic species from colder climates will have shorter appendages
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Bergman's Rule
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animals get bigger as the climate gets colder
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torpor
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daily hibernation. lowers metabolic rate to ambient temperatures but only occurs when the climate/temp dictates it
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hibernation
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sleeping for long periods of time for the winter
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aestivation
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hibernation for the summer and waiting until the temperature moderates
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relative humidity
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quantity of water vapor in the air, calculated by water vapor density / saturation water vapor density (maximum value)
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vapor pressure deficit
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relative saturation of air with water (warmer water can take more moisture), affects terrestrial animals
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water pressure deficit =
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water vapor pressure in air - saturation water up
With an increase in vpd, increase in ability of air to take up water |
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diffusion
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the diffusion of molecules across a concentration gradient
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osmosis
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the diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane
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isoosmotic
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no change in water intake
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hypoosmotic
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lose water (more solutes outside the body)
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hyperosmotic
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gain water (more solutes inside the body)
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4 means of water conservation
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lower evaporation (night), increase gain (consuming more or surrounding one's self), reduce SA, alter secretions
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population
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defined as groups of individuals of the same species living together
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meta-population model (large scale population)
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interested in gene flow between populations and populations within suitable habitats (if there is gene flow the each habitat is a sub-population and the collective habitats = meta-population)
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source-sink model (large scale population)
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if the patch becomes too dense, populations move to another site (moving from high to low quality habitats)
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landscape model (large scale population model)
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patches are not in a uniform matrix and organisms must overcome geographical features)
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meta-population
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group of populations connected by the movement of individuals
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small scale population distribution
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looks at individual distribution, can be random, regular, clumped; determined by interactions between individuals and environmental structure
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random distribution
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uniform distribution of nutrients, organisms are independent of one another, neutral interactions between organisms
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regular distribution
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competition over limited resources, individuals are evenly spaced, antagonistic interactions
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clumped distributions
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individuals are closer together, social behavior + attraction of individuals, patchy resources
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pop. density
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number of individuals per unit space
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abundance
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total number of individuals
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crude density
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measuring the number of individuals and include favorable and unfavorable environments (result may not be accurate)
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ecological density
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number of individuals per unit of available living space
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genet
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individual from sexual reproduction (unitary)
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ramet
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"individual" from asexual reproduction (modular, repeated copy of same unit--> quaking aspens)
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census
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counting everything
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quadrat sampling
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good for estimating the populations of non-moving organisms; set up plots of predetermined size and estimate # of species and individuals + % of ground cover
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mark-recapture
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used to estimate populations of mobile organisms; trap and mark (tag or clip fur); trap again and count the number of recaptures of new captures to estimate pop. size
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vulnerability measure (3 items)
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geographic range (restricted or extensive), habitat tolerance (narrow or broad), population size (large or small)
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population dynamics
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factors influencing the expansion, decline, and the maintenace of populations
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dispersal
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movement of species
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cohort life table
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group of individuals born in the same time period, follow all until they die
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static life table
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generate age distribution and detrmine the age at the time of death
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Population structure is comprised of (2 items)...
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spatial dispersion and temporal dispersion.
A means of describing the population |
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exponential growth
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occurs when there is a favorable environment with low density (doesn't happen too long because resources will dwindle eventually0
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logistic growth
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limited by the environment (there is a carrying capacity)
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population regulation
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density independent factors (rain, drought, temperature) or density dependent factors (resources become more scarce)
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type I survivorship curve
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High survival among the young but die with age (large invertebrates and humans)
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type II survivorship curve
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nearly constant rate of survival (small mammals, birds, reptiles)
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type III survivorship curve
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large morality rate for young but those that survive live for a long time
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life history
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pattern of allocation of time and resources to: growth, maintenance, and reproduction (which only occurs after survival is ensured)
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r selection
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population growth rate, strongest in new or disturbed habitats; organisms that can reproduce quickly and capitalize on resources are more favored; corresponds to ruderals
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k selection
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carrying capacity, more efficient use of resources, selects for the garnering of limited resources; stress tolerators or competitors
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true predators
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outright kill prey (more than one per lifetime), include carnivores, seed predators, filter feeders
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grazers
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eat part of their prey (typically harm but don't kill), have to attack many prey over a lifetime
herbivores, bloodsuckers, biting flies |
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parasites
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consume part of the prey, attack one or very few prey
Parasitic wors, types of plants, bacteria |
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parasitoids
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free living adults lay eggs in or near their prey, larvae grow in the prey and consume it
hymenopterans (flies and wasps), dipterans |
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batesian mimicry
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resemble the poisonous organisms but are edible in actuality
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mullerian mimicry
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all are poisonous models but look like other different species
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niche
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looks at space, time, and functional relationsips
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niche space
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activity range of each species along every dimension of the environment, including physical and chemical factors (pH, temp, salinity, moisture) and biological factors (competition and interaction of other species, predation, resting backgrounds)
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resource partitioning
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taking different portions of a limited resource
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guild
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group of species that are closely related to one another in their niches in a given community (larger to smaller ratio is around 1.3 to 1). Caused by competition and the subsequent evolution
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fundamental niche
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potential to exist without competition
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realized niche
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where species are actually found, competition is included, reduced size (smaller hypervolume than the fundamental niche)
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scramble competition
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indirect competition, mutual use of a limited resource (mainly plant competition)
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contest
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interact directly (direct aggression/display); territorality
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intraspecific competition
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occurs between individuals within a species
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interspecific competition
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competition occurs between species, can occur concurrently with intraspecific competition
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Principle of Gause
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if two species have the exact same requirements (niches) in the same place, they cannot coexist
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Principle of limiting similarity
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may be enough resources available to reduce or eliminate competition or small changes in the niche that may let the species coexist
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Corollary to the Principle of Gause
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No two species observed in a stable community are direct competitors limited by the same resource
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communities
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an assemblage of species which interact among themselves and with their environment with a time-space boundary
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formation
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plant community characterized by physiognomy and range of environments to which physiognomy is a response
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Space-for-time substitution
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can see the progression of species/how the environment changes by starting at center and move outwards (think of the bog)
Cowles, dunes of Lake Michigan |
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Clmements
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plant succession showed that change is a part of the community (community is an organism); believed in a closed community in which the species are grouped together
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Whitaker
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concept of a community as a dynamic grouping of populations
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Forbes
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came up with the organism concept - based on interactions of organisms within a community, group or association of animals.plants is like a single organism
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monoclimax theory
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climax community is determined by climate, should be found over large areas although local conditions may make modifications
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Gleason
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vegetation unit is temporary and fluctuating, dependent on the selective action of the environment; similar environments --> similar vegetation
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"behind the veil"
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the number of species increases as the number of individuals sampled increases (likelihood of running into a rare species is really small)
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species ricness
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number of species, increases as you move from north to south
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intermediate disturbance hypothesis
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highest species diversity is found at intermediate levels of disturbance (high kills off too many species while low limits species through dominance and competition)
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keystone species
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helps determine the composition of the community, generally the top predator (can lead to the extinction of other species through competition if keystone is removed)
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potential natural vegetation
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what the vegetation should be for any given area if there are no disturbance and climax growth
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succession
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process of regular change in a biota
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allogenic (drive) succession
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change in community caused by extrinsic factors
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autogenic succession
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change occurs because of the community
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3 types of primary succession:
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xerarch (gravel, rock), mesic (bare soil), hydrarch (open water)
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sere
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entire process of growth until climax stage
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hydrarch
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primary succession for open water (filling in a bog/pond)
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mesic
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bare soil primary succession (field to forest)
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xerarch
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primary succession for dry conditions of gravel and rock, exposed rocks are pioneered by mosses and lichens
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secondary succession
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not a complete reversion (soils are developed), but occurs after a natural phenomenon
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subclimax
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develop from interruptions in the sequence
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retrogressive succession
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linked to changes in extrinsic abiotic factors
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cyclic succession
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moving between progressive and retrogressive succession
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Initial floristic composition model
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everything is there already and everything is growing at the same time
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facilitation
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certain group of plants change the environment
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tolerance
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some species can tolerate situations better and change the environment with them to bring about preferred conditions
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inhibition
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species are replaced by death or damage by factors extrinsic to competition
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General Soil Profile
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O = area of litter
A = area of leaching and organic matter accumulation B = accumulation area C = parent material R = bedrock |
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Soil forming factors (5 items)
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climate
vegetation parent material type of relief time |
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Components of soil (4 items)
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sand
silt clay humus |
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Field Capacity
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amount of water soil can hold after gravitational water has dropped through
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"good" soil
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45% mineral matter
5% organic matter 25% water 25% air |
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nutrient exchange
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negative charges on clay micelles that attracts cations (Ca+, K+, Mg++)
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atmospheric river
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water is mainly in the tropics though it can occasionally branch off and downpour (occurred in SoCal)
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carbon cycle
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gaseous cycle, major reservoir is in the atmosphere; volcanic action, respiration, burning of coal
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biological pumping
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phytoplankton takes in CO2, dies, falls to substrate and fails to circulate (excess CO2 placed in the atmosphere is going to the ocean)
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nitrogen cycle
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gaseous cycle, occurs when proteins are broken down in respiration and released in waste products
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ammonification
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changing of nitrogen to NH4 (ammonium), accomplished by decay bacteria and fungi
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nitrification
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From ammonia to nitrate, accomplished by chemosynthetic autotrophs
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denitrification
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bacteria using nitrate in place of oxygen as electron donrs
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sulfur cycle
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gaseous and sedimentary cycle--enters the atmosphere from the combustion of fossil fuels, volcanic action, gases released by decomposition
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autotrophs
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gets energy from the sun and materials from nonliving sources
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heterotrophs
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get energy and materials from eating organic material
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First Law of Thermodynamics
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energy cannot be created or destroyed (can change form, though)
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Second Law of Thermodynamics
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when energy is transferred, part of it assumes a form that cannot pass any further
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Terrestrial Ecosystems (3 items)
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More Detritus than Grazing, 3 to 4 links, more support tissue
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Marine Ecosystems (3 items)
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More grazing than detritus, 4 to 5 links, less support tissue
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Progressive Trophic level trends
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fewer species, lower population levels, lower reproductive rates, increased body size, increased home range size, generalized feeders, increased life expectancy
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Body Size Increases:
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Herbivory--> Carnivory--> Omnivory--> Herbivory
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Photosynthetic energy
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(gross primary production) / energy in incident sunlight
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Primary productivity
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rate at which solar energy is converted to organic compounds
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Productivity
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rate of accumulation of organic material
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production
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the rate of accumulation of organic material at a particular trophic level
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biomass
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rate of accumulation of organic material across all trophic levels
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gross primary productivity
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total rate of photosynthesis
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net primary productivity
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gross primary productivity - the respiration of autotrophs
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exploitation efficiency
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ingested / potential energy available at trophic level below (I/P n-1)
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assimilation efficiency
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how much crosses the biochemical membrane; assimilated / ingested (A / I)
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Production of growth efficiency
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what is available to the next trophic level
Pn / A |
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trophic cascade
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top-down phenomenon that directly affects population numbers below the top predator
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Cool Coastal Deserts
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near areas of upwelling, water warms up over land and less likely to fall; no convective mixing of air
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subtropical deserts
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Mediterranean climates, plant growth is dependent on fall or winter rain
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continental interior deserts
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away from the influence of a maritime climate, may be influenced by rain shadows; area of high pressure in the winter
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Water Gain in Desert (3 items)
Water Loss in Desert (4 items) |
Oxidation water, food, drinking
Water in urine, water in feces, evaporation from the lungs, evaporation from the skin |
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What are animal adaptations to escape heat and drought?
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Estivation, diapause, migration, retreat
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What are plant adaptations to the desert?
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Escape drought, evade drought, tolerate drought
Perpendicular to the sun, 2 to 1 root to shoot ratio |
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What are leaf adaptations in the desert? (5 items)
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Leaf reduction, leaves can be lost (permanently or temporarily), succulent leaves, leaf color (lighter reflects more light), spines
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Amphibians of the desert (5 items)
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Water reserves in the bladder, concentrate urine, ability to absorb through skin, burrow or estivation, no definite breeding season
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Reptiles (lizards) of the desert
(6 items) |
Regulates behavior to manage temperature, use the burrows of other animals (sit until body is warmed up), store water in fatty tissues of tail, slits in pupils, more water in the blood, accessory lymph spaces along lateral abdominal folds to the head region
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Mammals of desert (4 mammals)
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Burrow (evaporation accumulates + protection from predators), concentrated urine, nocturnal, ectopic storage of fat
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Insects of the desert
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varying temperatures in different parts of the body
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Birds of the desert
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Nest building and reproduction is tied to rainfall, cooling is done through evaporative water loss, fluff feathers for both insulation and dissipation
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bioaccumulation
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the accumulation of a pollutant by any living component in the ecosystem
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concentration factor
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dietary intake
CF = [pollutant in organism]/[pollutant in diet] |
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accumulation factor
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[pollutant in an organism]/[pollutant in fluid]
taken in some other means than diet, depends on the affinity of tissues of organisms for a pollutant |
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acute dose
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large concentration of pollutant over a short period of time
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chronic dose
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small concentration over a long period of time
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LD50
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lethal dose that kills 50% of the population
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Lethal concentration
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the concentration of a pollutant at which 50% of the population is killed, will vary because of the medium it is located in
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EC50
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the point at which growth has been reduced by 50% of the population
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monitor species
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used to assess scale and distribution of a pollution insult, organisms that are insensitive to the effects of a pollutant--need to be abundant
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indicator species
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susceptible to a pollutant, disappear from an environment with pollutant's presence
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sentinel species (and two examples from rocky intertidal)
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when the biological impacts are not the main concern on the organism (knotted wrack and periwinkles)
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mixed function oxydases (MFOs)
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increased level of a naturally occurring substance with high levels of pesticides/drugs/hydrocarbons; biological measure of stress on an organism (can also measure ATP)
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scope for growth
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amount of energy available for growth.
SfG = A (energy assimilated) - M (energy metabolized) |