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254 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
greenhouse effect
occurs when heat is absorbed in the atmosphere. Heat energy is reradiated from the earth's surface as long wavelengths, and gases such as CO2 hold the gases within the earth's atmosphere.
Air movement at the equator
Heat causes air to expand (lighten) and rises. As it moves up, pressure decreases and it expands and cools, causing it to contract and drop. Spreads out and comes back to the surface of the earth.
Adiabatic Cooling
Air cools as it expands.
Hadley Cell
Rising air mass at the equator, cools and releases water on the rainforest, contracts and falls to the ground away from the equator. Pressure increases and the radiation of heat off of the earth's surface causes water to be absorbed from the ground (deserts). Air then replaces the cool air that rises from the equator.
Doldrum
Air moves upward near the equator to 5 degrees north and south of the equator. It is an area of low pressure where air is rising (and the air contains moisture)
High Pressure Front
Clear skies, lower temperatures, dry air
Horse Latitude
Air moves downwards. AKA subtropical calms
Ferrell Cells
weaker than Hadley cells, rising air pattern near the 60th degree latitude, descending dry air at the 30th and the poles
Wet and dry seasons
caused by the sun moving from being perpendicular to 23 degrees N to 23 degrees south, changes Hadley cells and where water is released
Coriolis Force
An object that moves above a rotating disk tends to keep its speed of lateral motion and the point of arrival is somewhat behind the straight line target. Causes the wind to move to the right in the N. Hemisphere, opposite in the south.
Ocean currents are affected by... (4 items)
Solar energy, gravity, motion of the earth, wind patterns
Gulfstream
caused by westerlies that take warm water towards Europe (warm water moves northwards from the equator) and creates a circular gyre.
Rainfall Patterns
Caused by differential warming and cooling of land and water
Mediterranean climate
Hot, dry summers and cool, moist winters
upwelling
surface water moves away from the shore and deep water rises. The new water is cold and nutrient rich, causing a lot of fish to breed there
Factors altering climate patterns (3 items)
Tall mountain ranges, adiabatic cooling, rain shadow effect
Rain shadow
The western side of mountains causes water to be released. The air on the eastern side of the mountains takes up moisture, much less precipitation as a result.
Lake Effect Snow
Caused by air being warmed over a body of water (like a lake) and then releasing precipitation as it moves over to the eastern side of the lake, where the ground is cooler than the water.
Maritime Climate
Influenced heavily by ocean air that moves off the ocean and onto land, generally less extreme than continental climates
Continental Climate
Influenced by air as it moves across a continent
Monsoons
Caused by sumer heat and rising air masses--moist air comes off the ocean, rises, cools, releases water. Air is sucked off the ocean to replace the rising air, causing the cycle to be repeated again
Atmospheric blanket
reradiates heat rapidly, more dense, more moisture to hold heat and bounces some heat back to the surface.
Aspect
The direction in which a surface faces. A south facing slope in the N. Hemisphere is dryer (more direct sunlight). A north facing slope is more shadowed, cooler, and moister.
El Nino/La Nina
Result of warmer temperatures in the Eastern Pacific and cooler temperatures in the W. Pacific (opposite of how it normally is). Wet in Americas and dry in Australia. La Nina is the opposite.
biome
regional similarity in temperature and moisture patterns, named for dominant plant groups
Holdridge Life Zones
Biomes are divided into smaller units called associations, used climate patterns to determine the vegetation in an area (will be used to predict what plants live where if moisture patterns change with global warming)
Tundra
northernmost biome, limited growing season, generally wet with low temperature (little evaporation because air is moist), characterized by lichens, grasses (plants that grow near the surface). Poorly developed soils w/ permafrost. Animals are adapted to long, cold winters or migrate and make seasonal use of growing season.
Boreal Forest
Dominated by conifers, little longer growing season than tundra (higher rainfall and warmer temps), long and sever winters, moderate precipitation that is caused by rising air cells, climatic extremes, infertile and acidic soil (pine needles)
Temperate seasonal and deciduous forests
Found between 30 and 60 degrees latitude, longer growing seasons and winters aren't quite as harsh as boreal/tundra. Higher rainfall in the summer, winters are moist and moderate, growing season is warm and moist. Fertile soils because of constant decomposition. High productivity and biomass. Deciduous or coniferous trees.
Temperate Rainforest
Found at 45 to 60 degrees latitude (Pacific Northwest), rain is caused by wind and ocean currents, year-round growing season
Temperate grassland, temperate deserts
hot and cold seasons, peak rainfall occurs during the peak of the growing season (life is dependent on water), fertile soils, prolonged droughts, fire is important to maintaining grasses to kill off invasives. Cold deserts are low in precipitation (deficit during the summer as temps increase, year-round growing season)
Mediterranean woodland/shrubland
unique species and high diversity of animals, wet winters and dry summers but a fairly constant temperature. Land is maintained by fire, low to moderate soil quality.
Subtropical desert
found from 23-30 degrees latitude, driest deserts are affected by mountains (rain shadows), water deficit throughout the year, dominated by succulents and thorny plants, hot or cold, dry w/ unpredictable precipitation, low productivity but high diversity.
Tropical rain forest
found at the equator, warm and wet with year-round growing season, low seasonality with infertile soils, nutrients are found in the vegetation, high biodiversity
Mountains
Run North to South in "New World" but East to West in "Old World." Serve as climatic and biological islands because organisms are specific to that environment. Rainfall and temp decreases with altitude increases
Ecoregion
large area of land or water that contains a geographically distinct assemblage of natural communities that share a majority of species and ecological phenomena (division of biomes)
Species diversity (2 items)
Richness - number of species present)
Evenness - total number of individuals split between species
Ecoregion Conservation
Broad scale approach to developing and implementing a comprehensive strategy that conserves species, habitats, and ecological processes of an ecoregion
Ecotones
Transition areas between two different ecosystems (can be abrupt or have overlap, latter causing high biodiversity)
Edges
Two communities come together
Phanerophytes
warm/moist climates, greater than 25 cm, trees and tall shrubs

Subtropical Forest, Rain forest
Chamaephytes
cool/dry, shrubs

Arctic Tundra, Subtropical Forest
Hemicryptophytes
pereniating tissue is at ground level, cold and moist

Arctic Tundra, Temperate Deciduous Forest
Cryptophytes
underground pereniating tissue, cold/moist
Therophytes
seeds will last until favorable conditions for growth--will be found in deserts
landscape fragmentation
dividing a large area into small tracts of land. Larger areas can have more individuals and decrease population densities. Long, thin patches of wildlife allow exotics to enter, larger patches retain species better
Properties of water (4 items)
High specific heat (warms, cools slowly)
Max density at 4 degrees C
More dense and more viscous than air
Light attenuates quickly
Benthos
organisms living either attached or resting on the bottom/substrate
epifauna
live on surface of substrate
periphyton
attached to organisms rooted in the substrate
infauna
buried in sediment
plankton and two specific types
floating organisms (carried by the tide rather than swimming capabilities). Phytoplankton = photosynthesizers, zooplankton = herbivores and carnivores
nekton
swimming organisms
neuston
rest or swim on the surface
deposit feeders
eat organic material on the bottom
filter feeders
remove food from the water
grazers
eat living material
lentic
standing freshwater ecosystem (lakes and ponds); influenced by transparency (light penetration), turbidity, pH, alkalinity (buffering capacity)
lotic
running water ecosystems (streams and rivers); controlled by the current, little to no thermal stratification, oxygen distribution is uniform, animal adaptations occur that cause organism to be anchored in place, major energy source comes from material carried in from the outside
limnetic zone
Extends to the depth of light penetration, no benthos and few to little neuston because it extends far from the shoreline
littoral zone
from the shore to the edge of rooted plants, characterized by murky water and photosynthesis
compensation point
anything below it will expend energy; photosynthesis offsets respiration
profundal zone
bottom and deep water region, fewer plankton and no neuston, absent in pond ecosystems
epilimnion
warm surface water
metalimnion
temperature changes with depth
hypolimnion
cold deeper waters (4 degrees Celsius)
dimitic
water column mixes twice completely during one year (spring and fall)
meromitic
water does not cool regularly, meaning that there is no mixing and the lake is stratified
oligotrophic
young lake, deep with few nutrients and very little growth/biomass, little decomposition, oxygen levels aren't depleted
eutrophic
lakes that are shallow, muddy, nutrient rich, more organic material in sediments; limited by phosphorus availability
vernal pool
seasonally flooded depression (ephemeral), animals have specialized survival strategies and can withstand a lack of water
tropical ocean water
salinity is the highest because of the continual evaporation of water, higher temperature makes it easier for solutes to dissolve in water, year round stratification
spring tide
sun and moon are lined up to make the tides more dramatic
neap tide
occur when the moon is perpendicular to the sun
neritic zone
from the littoral/intertidal zone to the continental shelf
oceanic zone
beyond the continental shelf
Deep ocean profile
Epipelagic, mesopelagic, bathylpelagic, abyssopelagic, hadopelagic
hydrothermal vents
ephemeral ecosystems, based on water being heated by the innards of the earth, minerals are pushed out by the steam and cause warm temperatures in the surrounding environment. Chemosynthesis of H2S, bacteria are the base of the food change
holoplanktonic
planktonic for entire life
meroplankton
part of life cycle is planktonic
Advantages of moving up and down in ocean (3 items)
Cold water lowers metabolic rate
Less light makes it harder for predators to find you
Lots of nutrients (and more oxygen) at the surface
Epipelagic fish
fusiform, countershading, tails come to a point and don't cast a shadow
mesopelagic fish (two types)
either vertical migrators or non-migrators. Vertical migrators have strong skeletons, big eyes, large mouths. Non-migrators - weaker bones, flabby muscles, smaller eyes, photophores for bioluminescence, longer spike like teeth to catch prey
Bathylpelagic fish
hover around, use lure to catch prey, long teeth. Lay eggs with larval stages that make way to surface
Abyssopelagic fish
smaller, more "eel" like
Coral Reefs
Grow near the shoreline where there are more nutrients; zooxanthellae undergo photosynthesis; provide habitats for organisms, allows for high diversity
Rocky intertidal
species living in this zone have to withstand desiccation in higher areas, biological competition in lower areas
salt marshes and mangrove forests
form buffers to winter storms, found along low-lying shores, broken up by water areas (rivers, creeks). Salt marshes are affected by varying levels of salinity (changes with tide). Mangroves colonize water, provide large surface area to hold the tree in place. Epiphytes grow on prop roots for young fishies, pneumatophores come up from roots and sand and into the air for gas exchange
estuaries
mixture of freshwater and saltwater, mixing makes it nutrient rich, salinity can change quickly and makes it hard to live there
With CO2 increases... (7 items)
Arid climates, affect range of organisms, dry forests (as opposed to rain forests), increase in number of extreme events, increased drought, smaller number of snow days, longer growing season
physiological ecology
effects on distribution and abundance of organisms
Factors of microhabitat (5 items)
altitude, aspect, vegetation life form, ground color, objects in the environment
enzymatic variation
range in which an organism can function is more narrow then the environmental variation (enzymes have optimal temperatures)
conduction
heat transfer between bodies in direct physical contact
convection
transfer of heat between a solid and moving fluid
radiation
transfer of heat between objects without contact
ectotherms
require external heat to warm bodies and rely on environmental sources and behavior generally affects body temperature
endotherms
generate their own heat; metabolism is important but can benefit from behavioral regulations
poikilotherm
varies with environmental temperature (smaller and elongated)
homeotherm
maintains a constant body temperature
thermal neutral zone
range of environmental temperatures at which the metabolism does not change, typical of the environment that an organism lives in (tropical versus arctic species)
Allen's Rule
endothermic species from colder climates will have shorter appendages
Bergman's Rule
animals get bigger as the climate gets colder
torpor
daily hibernation. lowers metabolic rate to ambient temperatures but only occurs when the climate/temp dictates it
hibernation
sleeping for long periods of time for the winter
aestivation
hibernation for the summer and waiting until the temperature moderates
relative humidity
quantity of water vapor in the air, calculated by water vapor density / saturation water vapor density (maximum value)
vapor pressure deficit
relative saturation of air with water (warmer water can take more moisture), affects terrestrial animals
water pressure deficit =
water vapor pressure in air - saturation water up

With an increase in vpd, increase in ability of air to take up water
diffusion
the diffusion of molecules across a concentration gradient
osmosis
the diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane
isoosmotic
no change in water intake
hypoosmotic
lose water (more solutes outside the body)
hyperosmotic
gain water (more solutes inside the body)
4 means of water conservation
lower evaporation (night), increase gain (consuming more or surrounding one's self), reduce SA, alter secretions
population
defined as groups of individuals of the same species living together
meta-population model (large scale population)
interested in gene flow between populations and populations within suitable habitats (if there is gene flow the each habitat is a sub-population and the collective habitats = meta-population)
source-sink model (large scale population)
if the patch becomes too dense, populations move to another site (moving from high to low quality habitats)
landscape model (large scale population model)
patches are not in a uniform matrix and organisms must overcome geographical features)
meta-population
group of populations connected by the movement of individuals
small scale population distribution
looks at individual distribution, can be random, regular, clumped; determined by interactions between individuals and environmental structure
random distribution
uniform distribution of nutrients, organisms are independent of one another, neutral interactions between organisms
regular distribution
competition over limited resources, individuals are evenly spaced, antagonistic interactions
clumped distributions
individuals are closer together, social behavior + attraction of individuals, patchy resources
pop. density
number of individuals per unit space
abundance
total number of individuals
crude density
measuring the number of individuals and include favorable and unfavorable environments (result may not be accurate)
ecological density
number of individuals per unit of available living space
genet
individual from sexual reproduction (unitary)
ramet
"individual" from asexual reproduction (modular, repeated copy of same unit--> quaking aspens)
census
counting everything
quadrat sampling
good for estimating the populations of non-moving organisms; set up plots of predetermined size and estimate # of species and individuals + % of ground cover
mark-recapture
used to estimate populations of mobile organisms; trap and mark (tag or clip fur); trap again and count the number of recaptures of new captures to estimate pop. size
vulnerability measure (3 items)
geographic range (restricted or extensive), habitat tolerance (narrow or broad), population size (large or small)
population dynamics
factors influencing the expansion, decline, and the maintenace of populations
dispersal
movement of species
cohort life table
group of individuals born in the same time period, follow all until they die
static life table
generate age distribution and detrmine the age at the time of death
Population structure is comprised of (2 items)...
spatial dispersion and temporal dispersion.

A means of describing the population
exponential growth
occurs when there is a favorable environment with low density (doesn't happen too long because resources will dwindle eventually0
logistic growth
limited by the environment (there is a carrying capacity)
population regulation
density independent factors (rain, drought, temperature) or density dependent factors (resources become more scarce)
type I survivorship curve
High survival among the young but die with age (large invertebrates and humans)
type II survivorship curve
nearly constant rate of survival (small mammals, birds, reptiles)
type III survivorship curve
large morality rate for young but those that survive live for a long time
life history
pattern of allocation of time and resources to: growth, maintenance, and reproduction (which only occurs after survival is ensured)
r selection
population growth rate, strongest in new or disturbed habitats; organisms that can reproduce quickly and capitalize on resources are more favored; corresponds to ruderals
k selection
carrying capacity, more efficient use of resources, selects for the garnering of limited resources; stress tolerators or competitors
true predators
outright kill prey (more than one per lifetime), include carnivores, seed predators, filter feeders
grazers
eat part of their prey (typically harm but don't kill), have to attack many prey over a lifetime

herbivores, bloodsuckers, biting flies
parasites
consume part of the prey, attack one or very few prey

Parasitic wors, types of plants, bacteria
parasitoids
free living adults lay eggs in or near their prey, larvae grow in the prey and consume it

hymenopterans (flies and wasps), dipterans
batesian mimicry
resemble the poisonous organisms but are edible in actuality
mullerian mimicry
all are poisonous models but look like other different species
niche
looks at space, time, and functional relationsips
niche space
activity range of each species along every dimension of the environment, including physical and chemical factors (pH, temp, salinity, moisture) and biological factors (competition and interaction of other species, predation, resting backgrounds)
resource partitioning
taking different portions of a limited resource
guild
group of species that are closely related to one another in their niches in a given community (larger to smaller ratio is around 1.3 to 1). Caused by competition and the subsequent evolution
fundamental niche
potential to exist without competition
realized niche
where species are actually found, competition is included, reduced size (smaller hypervolume than the fundamental niche)
scramble competition
indirect competition, mutual use of a limited resource (mainly plant competition)
contest
interact directly (direct aggression/display); territorality
intraspecific competition
occurs between individuals within a species
interspecific competition
competition occurs between species, can occur concurrently with intraspecific competition
Principle of Gause
if two species have the exact same requirements (niches) in the same place, they cannot coexist
Principle of limiting similarity
may be enough resources available to reduce or eliminate competition or small changes in the niche that may let the species coexist
Corollary to the Principle of Gause
No two species observed in a stable community are direct competitors limited by the same resource
communities
an assemblage of species which interact among themselves and with their environment with a time-space boundary
formation
plant community characterized by physiognomy and range of environments to which physiognomy is a response
Space-for-time substitution
can see the progression of species/how the environment changes by starting at center and move outwards (think of the bog)

Cowles, dunes of Lake Michigan
Clmements
plant succession showed that change is a part of the community (community is an organism); believed in a closed community in which the species are grouped together
Whitaker
concept of a community as a dynamic grouping of populations
Forbes
came up with the organism concept - based on interactions of organisms within a community, group or association of animals.plants is like a single organism
monoclimax theory
climax community is determined by climate, should be found over large areas although local conditions may make modifications
Gleason
vegetation unit is temporary and fluctuating, dependent on the selective action of the environment; similar environments --> similar vegetation
"behind the veil"
the number of species increases as the number of individuals sampled increases (likelihood of running into a rare species is really small)
species ricness
number of species, increases as you move from north to south
intermediate disturbance hypothesis
highest species diversity is found at intermediate levels of disturbance (high kills off too many species while low limits species through dominance and competition)
keystone species
helps determine the composition of the community, generally the top predator (can lead to the extinction of other species through competition if keystone is removed)
potential natural vegetation
what the vegetation should be for any given area if there are no disturbance and climax growth
succession
process of regular change in a biota
allogenic (drive) succession
change in community caused by extrinsic factors
autogenic succession
change occurs because of the community
3 types of primary succession:
xerarch (gravel, rock), mesic (bare soil), hydrarch (open water)
sere
entire process of growth until climax stage
hydrarch
primary succession for open water (filling in a bog/pond)
mesic
bare soil primary succession (field to forest)
xerarch
primary succession for dry conditions of gravel and rock, exposed rocks are pioneered by mosses and lichens
secondary succession
not a complete reversion (soils are developed), but occurs after a natural phenomenon
subclimax
develop from interruptions in the sequence
retrogressive succession
linked to changes in extrinsic abiotic factors
cyclic succession
moving between progressive and retrogressive succession
Initial floristic composition model
everything is there already and everything is growing at the same time
facilitation
certain group of plants change the environment
tolerance
some species can tolerate situations better and change the environment with them to bring about preferred conditions
inhibition
species are replaced by death or damage by factors extrinsic to competition
General Soil Profile
O = area of litter
A = area of leaching and organic matter accumulation
B = accumulation area
C = parent material
R = bedrock
Soil forming factors (5 items)
climate
vegetation
parent material
type of relief
time
Components of soil (4 items)
sand
silt
clay
humus
Field Capacity
amount of water soil can hold after gravitational water has dropped through
"good" soil
45% mineral matter
5% organic matter
25% water
25% air
nutrient exchange
negative charges on clay micelles that attracts cations (Ca+, K+, Mg++)
atmospheric river
water is mainly in the tropics though it can occasionally branch off and downpour (occurred in SoCal)
carbon cycle
gaseous cycle, major reservoir is in the atmosphere; volcanic action, respiration, burning of coal
biological pumping
phytoplankton takes in CO2, dies, falls to substrate and fails to circulate (excess CO2 placed in the atmosphere is going to the ocean)
nitrogen cycle
gaseous cycle, occurs when proteins are broken down in respiration and released in waste products
ammonification
changing of nitrogen to NH4 (ammonium), accomplished by decay bacteria and fungi
nitrification
From ammonia to nitrate, accomplished by chemosynthetic autotrophs
denitrification
bacteria using nitrate in place of oxygen as electron donrs
sulfur cycle
gaseous and sedimentary cycle--enters the atmosphere from the combustion of fossil fuels, volcanic action, gases released by decomposition
autotrophs
gets energy from the sun and materials from nonliving sources
heterotrophs
get energy and materials from eating organic material
First Law of Thermodynamics
energy cannot be created or destroyed (can change form, though)
Second Law of Thermodynamics
when energy is transferred, part of it assumes a form that cannot pass any further
Terrestrial Ecosystems (3 items)
More Detritus than Grazing, 3 to 4 links, more support tissue
Marine Ecosystems (3 items)
More grazing than detritus, 4 to 5 links, less support tissue
Progressive Trophic level trends
fewer species, lower population levels, lower reproductive rates, increased body size, increased home range size, generalized feeders, increased life expectancy
Body Size Increases:
Herbivory--> Carnivory--> Omnivory--> Herbivory
Photosynthetic energy
(gross primary production) / energy in incident sunlight
Primary productivity
rate at which solar energy is converted to organic compounds
Productivity
rate of accumulation of organic material
production
the rate of accumulation of organic material at a particular trophic level
biomass
rate of accumulation of organic material across all trophic levels
gross primary productivity
total rate of photosynthesis
net primary productivity
gross primary productivity - the respiration of autotrophs
exploitation efficiency
ingested / potential energy available at trophic level below (I/P n-1)
assimilation efficiency
how much crosses the biochemical membrane; assimilated / ingested (A / I)
Production of growth efficiency
what is available to the next trophic level

Pn / A
trophic cascade
top-down phenomenon that directly affects population numbers below the top predator
Cool Coastal Deserts
near areas of upwelling, water warms up over land and less likely to fall; no convective mixing of air
subtropical deserts
Mediterranean climates, plant growth is dependent on fall or winter rain
continental interior deserts
away from the influence of a maritime climate, may be influenced by rain shadows; area of high pressure in the winter
Water Gain in Desert (3 items)

Water Loss in Desert (4 items)
Oxidation water, food, drinking

Water in urine, water in feces, evaporation from the lungs, evaporation from the skin
What are animal adaptations to escape heat and drought?
Estivation, diapause, migration, retreat
What are plant adaptations to the desert?
Escape drought, evade drought, tolerate drought

Perpendicular to the sun, 2 to 1 root to shoot ratio
What are leaf adaptations in the desert? (5 items)
Leaf reduction, leaves can be lost (permanently or temporarily), succulent leaves, leaf color (lighter reflects more light), spines
Amphibians of the desert (5 items)
Water reserves in the bladder, concentrate urine, ability to absorb through skin, burrow or estivation, no definite breeding season
Reptiles (lizards) of the desert
(6 items)
Regulates behavior to manage temperature, use the burrows of other animals (sit until body is warmed up), store water in fatty tissues of tail, slits in pupils, more water in the blood, accessory lymph spaces along lateral abdominal folds to the head region
Mammals of desert (4 mammals)
Burrow (evaporation accumulates + protection from predators), concentrated urine, nocturnal, ectopic storage of fat
Insects of the desert
varying temperatures in different parts of the body
Birds of the desert
Nest building and reproduction is tied to rainfall, cooling is done through evaporative water loss, fluff feathers for both insulation and dissipation
bioaccumulation
the accumulation of a pollutant by any living component in the ecosystem
concentration factor
dietary intake
CF = [pollutant in organism]/[pollutant in diet]
accumulation factor
[pollutant in an organism]/[pollutant in fluid]
taken in some other means than diet, depends on the affinity of tissues of organisms for a pollutant
acute dose
large concentration of pollutant over a short period of time
chronic dose
small concentration over a long period of time
LD50
lethal dose that kills 50% of the population
Lethal concentration
the concentration of a pollutant at which 50% of the population is killed, will vary because of the medium it is located in
EC50
the point at which growth has been reduced by 50% of the population
monitor species
used to assess scale and distribution of a pollution insult, organisms that are insensitive to the effects of a pollutant--need to be abundant
indicator species
susceptible to a pollutant, disappear from an environment with pollutant's presence
sentinel species (and two examples from rocky intertidal)
when the biological impacts are not the main concern on the organism (knotted wrack and periwinkles)
mixed function oxydases (MFOs)
increased level of a naturally occurring substance with high levels of pesticides/drugs/hydrocarbons; biological measure of stress on an organism (can also measure ATP)
scope for growth
amount of energy available for growth.

SfG = A (energy assimilated) - M (energy metabolized)