Ecology

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3 conditions necessary for evolution by natural selection

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1. variability

2. heritability of characteristics

3. influence of the environment on survival and reproduction

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SPP

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Speciation: appearance of a new species

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Speciation event occurs in:

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Allopatry 2nd pop must be seperated in space

not in sympatry

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Microevolution

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changes that occur in a pop, that do not lead to a new spp

(e.g. resistance to insectizides)

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Mutation

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characteristic is not heritable

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Evolution

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a commulative change in the characteristics of one population of organisms over time

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3 evolution processes

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1. Variation

2. Reproduction

3. Natural selection

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Adaption

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feature of an organism that increases fitness (survival and reproduction)

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Fitness

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the proportional distribution of individuals to future generations

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3 types of selection

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1. Directional selection

2. Stabilizing selection

3. Disruptive selection

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Adaptive radiation

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evolution of 1 generalised ancestral species to many specialised descendants

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Environment includes

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1. physical factors

2. chemical factors (nutrients)

3. Biological factors (spp)

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Natural selection

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an individual behaviour that max. the net benefit

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Territorial defense (cost + benefit)

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cost: time, energy, risk of injury

benefit: food, mate, shelter

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Group living

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+ mating success, vigilance

- less resources, diseases, predation risk

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Eusocial

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closly related, stay together, recognize relatives

sterile individuals - altruistic

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biotic interactions

abiotic factors

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predators, parasites, competitors

temperature, physiological ecology

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Distribution

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pattern in space and time

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Dispersal

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moment of individuals into a new area to survive and reproduce

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Gene flow

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movement of alleles from one pop to another

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3 modes of dispersal

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1. Diffusion (california otter, cane toad)

2. Jump dispersal (African honey bee)

3. Secular (occurs in evolutionary time)

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dispersal barrier

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not always geogr. range

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Habitat

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part of the biosphere where a specific species can live

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strategies to escape competition

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1. selecting different part of the habitat

2. changing diet

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Abiotic factors that limit distribution

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1. temperature and moisture

2. light, pH, chemical factors

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Population

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a group of organims of a same species, occupying a particular space at the same time

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Local population

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Individuals sharing the same gene pool

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2 types of population

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1. Unitary: Organism in pop: individual units (cats, birds)

2. Modular: not individual (coral, grass)

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4 parameters of pop

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1. Natality

2. Mortality

3. Immigration

4. Emigration

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survivorship curves

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1. large mammals, humans in developed countries

2. hydra, lizard, bird, mouse

3. fish, marine organims, oysters, oak trees, frog

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Expanding pop formular

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Nt = N0*e^(r*t)

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Discrete generation

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no overlapping between parent generation and further generation, life cycle on year

Pop. depends on R0, if <1 then extinction

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Biological interactions classification

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1. mechanisms of the interaction

2. effects of interaction

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Biological interaction: mechanisms

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1. Competition

2. Predation

3. Herbivory

4. Parasitism

5. Disease

6. Mutualism

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Categories effects of biological interaction

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1. 0 no effect

2. + one pop benefited at the expense of the other

3. - one pop adversely affected by the other

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Competition

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1. Resource competition: common resource, short supply

2. Interference competition: seeking of a resource harms other organisms

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Resources

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Plans: light, nutrients, water, pollinators, space

Animals: water, food, mates, space

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Niche

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ecological space occupied by a species + the occupation of the species in a community

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Fundamental niche

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ecological space occupied by a species in the absence of competition and other biotic interactions from other species

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realised niche

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the observed resource use of a spcies in the presence of competition and other biotic interactions; contrast with fundamental niche

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Anti-predator defense

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1. Colouring (but predators must sample)

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Community

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any assemblages of pop of living organisms in a prescribed area or habitat

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community structure

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1. temporal variation (succession)

2. spatial variation (biodiversity)

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Succession types

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Primary succession - new sterile area (lava, glacier, sand dunes)
Secondary succession - recovery from disturbed sites (flood, hurricane, tornado, fire)

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Concepts of succession: Facilitation model

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1. species replaces each other, modify the environment --> less suitable for them, more suitable for others

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Concepts of succession: Inhibition model

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initial floristic composition depends on who get to the area first

each species surpresses and excludes new colonists

more individualistic, less predictable

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Concepts of succession: Tolerance model

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any spp can start succession, more tolerant to limiting resources, replace others, superior spp --> will dominate

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Concepts of succession: random colonisation model

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only chance survival of a spp

no facilitation, no competition

can move in any direction

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Biodiversity

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Spatial variation of community structure

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Biodiversity can be measured at:

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1. Genetic level

2. Species level

3. Ecosystem level

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Species richness

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Count all species:

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Shannon Wiener Index

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high when no of species high, or even distribution

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Simpsons Index

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little weight to rare species

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endemic species

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spp occur only in a relatively small geographic area

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umbrella species

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serve as a guide to other groups of species

protecting them indirectly protects others

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factors that have influence on biodiversity

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evolutionary speed

geogr. area

interspecific interactions

ambient energy

productivity

disturbance