Earth Sci Finals

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Weathering

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General term applied to the combined action of all the processes that causes rock to disintegrate physicallyand decompose chemically because of exposure near the earth's surface through the elements of weather such as temperature, rainfall, frost, fog, and ice.

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Physical weathering

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Happens wherever rocks are broken up into smaller fragments without any chemical change in their composition.

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Block disintegration

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Is the successive heating and cooling which causes the expansion and contraction of rocks.

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Exfoliation

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Results because of the intense heating of the rocks outer layers.

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Frost action

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One of the most important physical weathering processes in cold climates. The alternate freezing and melting of water inside the joints of the rocks, splits them into fragments.

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Chemical weathering

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Chemical change in the rocks through formation of new compounds or formation of new substances.

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Oxidation

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Is the process in which atmospheric oxygen reacts with the rock to produce oxides.

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Carbonation

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Is the process by which various types of carbonates are formed.

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Hydration

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Id's the process by which water is absorbed by the minerals of the rock.

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Solution

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Is the process in which some is the minerals get dissolved in water.

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Biotic weathering

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The roots of the plants penetrate into the joints of the rock. Natural.

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Plants

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Contribute to both mecahnical and chemical weathering.

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Burrowing

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Animals like earthworms, rats, rabbits, termites, and ants breakdown the rocks.

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Human beings

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Play a very important role in weathering of various rocks. Man beaks large amount of rocks in the course of his activities, like agriculture, construction of houses, and construction of roads, among others.

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Mass wasting

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Refers to the downslope movement off rock and soul under the influence of gravity.

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Fall

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Free fall movement of the detached individual pieces of rock.

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Slides

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Occur whenever rock materials remain fairly coherent and move along a well defined surface.

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Flow

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This happens when rock materials are saturated with water and move along the downslope as a viscous fluid.

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Wind erosion

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Happens when winds carry away vast quantity of fine soul particles and sand from deserts and spread it over adjoining cultivated land and thus destroy their fertility.

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Sheet erosion

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Happens when water moves as sheets taking away thin layersof soil.

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Rill erosion

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Its the removal of surface material usually soil, by the action of running water.

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Gully erosion

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Happens when water moves as channel down the slope and it scoops out the soil and form gullies which gradually multiply and in the long run spread over a wide area.

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Magma

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Molten rock

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1. Addition of the heat

2. Decrease in pressure through convective uplifting (without the addition of heat)

3. Addition of volatiles (water)

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Three considerations to generate magma

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Geothermal gradient

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One of earth's sources of energy

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Subduction zone

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Is a long, narrow zone where one lithosphere plate descends beneath another

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Subduction

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Is the process of thrusting oceanic lithosphere into the mantle along a convergent boundary.

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Convergent boundary

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Is an example of player boundary

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1. Heat is added as huge slabs of crust slide past each other at the subduction zones by friction

2. Heat is added to crustal rocks by descending at the subduction zone

3. Heat is added from hot mantle rocks by rising and intruding crustal rocks.

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3 ways of adding heat to generate magma

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Metamorphism

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Transformation of one rock type into another.

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Metamorphic rocks

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Are produced from pre existing igneous, sedimentary, our from other metamorphic rocks.

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Volcano

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Is a vent I the surface of the earth through which magma erupts during volcanic activity or igneous activity

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Lava

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Primary material extruded from a volcano in addition to broken rocks, lava bombs, ash, and dust during volcanic eruptions.

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Fault

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In earth's crust is the location of earthquakes

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Earthquake

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Is a sudden, rapid shaking of earth caused by a release of energy storedin rocks.

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Stress

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Is a force that causes rocks to change shape or volume by pushing or pulling

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Compression, tension, and shear

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Types of stress

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Compression

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Happens when rock is squeezed until it folds or break in convergent boundary

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Tension

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Happens when the rock is pulled causing it to be stretched in a divergeny boundary

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Reverse fault

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The hanging wall moves the footwall. It is a type of compressional stress.

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Normal fault

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The hanging wall moves down the fault line. Its the type of fault in a tension stress.

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Shear

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Occurs when the forces that push rocks and faults in opposite directions.

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Tsunami

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Is a series of ocean waves generated by sudden displacements in the seafloor, landslides, or volcanic activity.

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Project TeWS

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Tsunami Detection and Early Warning System

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Diastrophism

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Dynamic internal forces that generally tend to cause the earth's

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Elastic Deformation

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Rocks respond to stress by deforming elastically. Like a rubber band, the rock will return to nearly its orginal size and shape when the force isbl removed.

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1. It either flows which we called ductile deformation.

2. It fractures in what we call brittle deformation

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Two kinds of elastic deformation

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1. The rock material must have the ability to deform under pressure and heat.

2. The higher the temperature of the rock the more elastic it becomes.

3. Pressure must not exceed the internal strength of the rock otherwise, fracturing occurs.

4. Deformation must be applied slowly.

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The following conditions must be met in for the deformation of rock to occur:

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1. Translated (moved) from its original position.

2. Change in orientation (folding, rotation and/or tilting)

3. Changed in shape (distortion)

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If a rock has been deformed:

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Fold

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It can be defined as a bend in rock that is a response to comoressional force.

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Anticline, Syncline, Monocline

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Types of Folds

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Anticline

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Conves up fold in rock that resembles an arch like structure with the rock beds dipping away from the center of the structure.

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Syncline

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Is a type of fold where the rock layers are warped downward.

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Monocline

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Rocks are folded so both ends of the fold are horizontal.

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Faults

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Faults form in rocks when the stresses overcome the internal strength of the rock resulting in a fracture.

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1. Dip slip fault

2. Graben fault

3. Horst Fault

4. Strike-slip fault

5. Oblique slip fault

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Types of fault

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Are faults in which the movement is primarily parallel to the inclinationbor dip of the fault surface.

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Dip-slip fault

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It is produced when tensional stresses result in the subsidence of a block of rock.

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Graben fault

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Is the development of the two reverse faults causing a block of rock to be pushed up

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Horst Fault

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Are vertical in nature and are produced where the stresses are exerted paralled to each other.

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Strike slip fault

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Is a special kind of strike slip fault that cuts through the lithosphere and accomodates motion between two large crustal plates.

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Transform fault

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Happens when many faults are mixed in slip type

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Oblique slip fault

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Occurs when tensional forces in opposite directions and cause one slab of the rocks to be displaced up and the other slab down.

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Normal fault

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Reverse fault

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Develops when compression forces exist. Compressions cause one block to be pushed up and over the other block.

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San Andreas Fault

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A continental transform fault and the biggest fault line in the world.

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Dr. Raymundo S. Punungbayan

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Specializes in structural geology and tectonics, environmental geology, photology, and remote sensing, volcanology, and geologic hazards mapping and risk assessment.

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Structural geology

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Study of how earth deforms by examining rocks at any scale from microscopic to continental.

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Heat

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Form of energy arising from the random motion of the molecules of bodies auch as the Earth

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Conduction

Convection

Radiation

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Heat can be transferres by;

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1. Heat from when the planet formed and accreted, which has not yet been lost

2. Frictional heating, caused by denser core material sinking to the center of the planet.

3. Heat from the decay of radio active elements.

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3 main sources of heat in the deep region of the earth

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J.D. Dana

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Proposed the continent accretion theory where the continents have always been stationary, with the gradual addition of new material around a certain nucleus.

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Continental assimilation hypothesis

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Ocean areas accumalate the denser elements, the subside to form basins

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George Darwin

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Proposed that the moon was gravituonally extracted fro the pacific ocean, with the earth eventually redistributing into oveanic and continental crusts

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Continental drift

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Gradual movements of continent over time

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Alfred Wegener

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German geophysicist and meteorlogist, proposed the continental drift theory

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Plate tectonics

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Movements of plates

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1. Evidences of geological structures on different continents having closely related formation patterns.

2. Uncovering of nearly identical plant and animal fossils on continents that are now separated.

3. Paleomagnetism

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Evidences of Continental Drift

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Paleomagnetism

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Studying yhe magnetism of rocks from varying geological periods revealed the Earth's magnetic field at the time of the rock's formation.

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Divergent Boundary or Constructive Boundary

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This occurs when two tectonic plates move away from each other

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Convergent boundary or destructive plate boundary

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Two pkates come together; the impact of the two colliding plates buckles the edges of one or both plates up into rugged mountain range, and sometimes bends the other down inti a deep seafloor trench.

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Transform pkate boundary

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Two plates sliding past each other

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Seafloor spreading

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Geological process in which tectonic plates split apart from each other as a result of mantle convection.

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Mantle convection

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Slow churning of the Earth's mantle

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Wilson Cycle

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Refers to the sequence of evwnts leading to the formation,expansion, contracting and eventual elimination of ocean basins

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1. A continent rifts when it breaks up.

2. As spreadigmng continues as ocean opens, passive margin cools and sediments accumulate.

3. Convergence begins; an oceanic plate subducts, creating a volcanic chain at an active margin.

4. Terraine accretion-from the sedimentary wedge welds material to the continent.

5. As two continents collide orogeny thickens the crust and building mountains.

6. The continents erodes, thinning the crust.

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Wilson Cycle

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Uniformitarianism

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An idea which the states that the present is the key to the past

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Relative dating

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Is used to determine whether an object or event is older or younger than other objects or events

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Law of orginal horizontality

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This means that rocks are originally formed in horizontal layers.

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Law of superposition

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This states that in any undisturbed sequence of layers of rock, the oldest or first deposited layer would be on the bottom and the youngest would be on the top.

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Principle of croscutting relations

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This idea states that any rock or fault that cuts across other rocks is younger than those it cuts across.

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Idea of unconformities

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Unconformities are surfaces of erosin that separate younger rocks from older ones.

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Absolute dating

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Is any method measuring the age of an event or object in years

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Isotopes

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Are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

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Radioactive

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If the isotopes are unstable

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Radiometric dating

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Is achieved by determining the absolute age of a sample based on the ratio of parent material to daughter material.

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Half life

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Is the time needed for half of a sample of a radioactive substance to undergo radioactive decay.

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Fossil

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Is the remnant of any ancient animal or planet that has been preserved in rock.

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Index/Guide Fossil

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Another way to find relative ages of rocks

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1. It must have hard parts, like a shell.

2. It must have lived over a short period of time, before it evolved into a different creature.

3. It must have lived all over the planet.

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An index must have the following properties: