Early Modern Europe Final

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Scientific Revolution

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Between 1500 and 1700. Transition from traditional to modern thinking. Rediscovery of ancient Greek science. Revival of Aristotle. By 1700, new modern scientists and thinkers. Empirical observation. Study all variations of something. Law codes among all countries (cultural relativism). Galen’s medical works. Ptolemy’s geocentric theories—map of known world. Dominant mode of thinking. Starts the chain for questioning. Scientists like Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo,Newton—falling bodies on earth obey the same laws.

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Scholasticism

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Thomas Aquinas= Christian doctrine + Aristotle science. Scholastic tradition—doesn’t work in nature; works in absolutes;theory is God-given. Varies from observable reality. Transubstantiation of the Eucharist? Neo-Platonism: math as a language to be understood. 1500-1650.

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Philosophe

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Any of the literary men, scientists, and thinkers of 18th-century France who were united, in spite of divergent personal views, in their conviction of the supremacy and efficacy of human reason. Inspired by the philosophic thought of René Descartes, the skepticism of the Libertins, or freethinkers, and the popularization of science by Bernard de Fontenelle, the philosophes expressed support for social, economic, and political reforms, occasioned by sectarian dissensions within the church, the weakening of the absolute monarchy, and the ruinous wars that had occurred toward the end of Louis XIV’s reign. In the early part of the 18th century, the movement was dominated by Voltaire and Montesquieu, but that restrained phase became more volatile in the second half of the century. Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon, Étienne Bonnot de Condillac, Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, and the Marquis de Condorcet were among the philosophes who devoted their energies to compiling the Encyclopédie, one of the great intellectual achievements of the century.

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King's Secret

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king makes separate policy from French ministry. Conducted foreign policy in secret. A way to bypass his ministers without confronting them.

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Frederick the Great

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stratagems and wars against Austria and other powers, greatly enlarged Prussia’s territories and made Prussia the foremost military power in Europe. An enlightened absolute monarch, he favored French language and art and built a French Rococo palace, Sanssouci, near Berlin. Frederick, the third king of Prussia, ranks among the two or three dominant figures in the history of modern Germany. Under his leadership Prussia became one of the great states of Europe. Its territories were greatly increased and its military strength displayed to striking effect. From early in his reign Frederick achieved a high reputation as a military commander, and the Prussian army rapidly became a model admired and imitated in many other states. He also emerged quickly as a leading exponent of the ideas of enlightened government, which were then becoming influential throughout much of Europe; indeed, his example did much to spread and strengthen those ideas. Notably, his insistence on the primacy of state over personal or dynastic interests and his religious toleration widely affected the dominant intellectual currents of the age. Even more than his younger contemporaries, Catherine II the Great of Russia and Joseph II in the Habsburg territories, it was Frederick who, during the mid-18th century, established in the minds of educated Europeans a notion of what “enlightened despotism” should be. His actual achievements, however, were sometimes less than they appeared on the surface; indeed, his inevitable reliance on the landowning officer (Junker) class set severe limits in several respects to what he could even attempt. Nevertheless, his reign saw a revolutionary change in the importance and prestige of Prussia, which was to have profound implications for much of the subsequent history of Europe. Friend of Voltaire; supported scientists and writers; Prussian Royal Academy; decent historian and free thinker; scorned religion; cynical; workaholic; no delegation of authority; state distinct from himself; simplifies law code, honesty in government; universal education; promoted immigration; didn’t want peasants to be overwhelmed with taxes & responsibilities

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Frederick William the Great

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In 1713 Prussia’s armed forces numbered 38,000 soldiers, supported in large part by foreign subsidies. When Frederick William died in 1740, he left his son an army of about 83,000 out of a population of 2,200,000, a war chest of more than 8,000,000 taler, and a Prussia that had become the third military power on the European continent, after Russia and France. The canton system of recruitment and replacement, introduced in 1733, provided one-half the manpower of Frederick William’s army from the Prussian peasantry. The rest of the soldiers were recruited from all over Europe. Frederick William also created from his fractious nobility the loyal Prussian officer corps. Prince Leopold I of Anhalt-Dessau, a brutal, if efficient, drillmaster, provided the instrument wielded by these officers—the Prussian infantry, which could outmarch and outshoot all others. Namely, he helped build up the Prussian army and create a large war chest. Compulsory education!

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Frederick William the Elector

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elector of Brandenburg (1640–88), who restored the Hohenzollern dominions after the devastations of the Thirty Years’ War—centralizing the political administration, reorganizing the state finances, rebuilding towns and cities, developing a strong army, and acquiring clear sovereignty over ducal Prussia. All these measures contributed to the foundation of the future Prussian monarchy

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Louis XIV

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(1638-1715) King of France (1643-1715). Ruledhis country, principally from his great palace at Versailles, during one of itsmost brilliant periods and who remains the symbol of absolute monarchy ofthe classical age. Internationally, in a series of wars between 1667 and 1697,he extended France’s eastern borders at the expense of the Habsburgs and then,in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14), engaged ahostile European coalition in order to secure the Spanish throne for hisgrandson.i'T���'

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Louis XV

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(1710-1774). Became king at age 5, so the regent the Duke d’Orleans ruled in his place until 1723. Begins to show interest in reform-minded ministers. Favored by philosophes. Aristocratic privileges. Laws to benefit people. When they don’t work, they must reform.

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Maria Theresa

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(1717-1780) r. 1740-1765. Daughter of Charles VI. She becomes empress after her father strikes a deal with the nobles and neighbors to accept her. Nobles later betray her—“pragmatic sanctions”—and she never forgives them. Married to Francis of Lorraine, who is useless. Queen of Hungary—the army stands behind her. This is who she trusts and depends on. She lets Hungary govern itself within the Austrian Empire. They have a good military, good bureaucracy, no loyalty to Austrian nobility. She gets caught up in the war of Austrian Succession in 1740, has to defend her realm. Loses Bohemia, cannot afford to lose Silesia to Frederick the Great. Formed a financial alliance with Britain. Builds an alliance to crush Prussia. France becomes an ally—Diplomatic Revolution (1756). She never accepts the loss of Silesia. She begins carrying out reforms—centralize political and fiscal systems. She abolishes tax exemption for the nobility. Church reforms (she is a devout Catholic). Wants Austria to benefit from churches and monasteries, needs more money. Takes Galicia in the first partition of Poland.

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Joseph II

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(1741-1790) r.1765-1790 becomes HRE in 1765. Son of Maria Theresa. Attempts to carry out serious reforms. Peasant reforms, continuinghis mother’s work. Very influencedby Enlightenment. Served until 1780 with no power because his mother stillruled. She uses cabinets to keep him in check. Beloved by peasants for hisreforms. Well-educated philosophe. State exists to provide reforms. Smart,well-intentioned, but inability to compromise. Imposes Enlightenment, notalways popular. He hated how divided the Habsburg Empire was. Estates &privileged towns refused to accept his reforms. He also considered the Churchtoo powerful. b&T

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Peter Leopold

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(1747-1792) r. 1790-1792. The third son of the Habsburg Maria Theresaand the emperor Francis I, Leopold succeeded his father as duke of Tuscany whenhis eldest brother became emperor as Joseph II in 1765. Like Joseph, Leopoldwas influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and was determined toconstruct an efficient state apparatus at the expense of feudal interests.During his 25-year reign over the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, he rationalized hisstates’ taxation and tariff systems and encouraged the development ofrepresentative institutions. After Joseph II died in February 1790, Leopold waselected emperor (and also became king of Hungary and archduke of Austria).Although he dismantled some of the centralized state machinery that Joseph hadset up in the Habsburg domains, he kept in force Joseph’s decrees thatemancipated the peasantry and granted increased religious liberty tonon-Catholics. At first Leopold reacted cautiously to the explosive situationcreated in Europe by the French Revolution. In August 1791, however, he joinedwith the Prussians in issuing the Declaration of Pillnitz, appealing to theEuropean sovereigns to use force to assure the maintenance of monarchicalgovernment in France. Austria and Prussia concluded a defensive alliance inFebruary 1792, but Leopold died less than two months before France declared waron Austria. T}

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Francis of Lorraine

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married to Maria Theresa. Marrying him gave her HRE. Not involved ingovernment. Died in 1765, does nothing. Rules in Tuscany, tries to implementsome modern reforms.

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Charles VI (of Austria)

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(1711-1740) Wanted to compete with English and Dutch economies. Small army relative to size of territory. State-sponsored economic development. Mercantilism. Not centralized. Wanted to contain the nobility, but he has no heir. Instead, he tries to buy them off “pragmatic sanction”. Must get the nobles to recognize his daughter Maria Theresa! Nobles agree, but go back on their word (Maria Theresa hates them for this). Tries to placate surrounding neighbors to get them to accept her as a ruler.

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Voltaire

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Philosophe, a monarchist who wanted to force the Enlightenment. Plato’sphilosopher-king. Rule by reason, not divine right. Supported “enlighteneddespots” like Catherine and Frederick the Great. Bourgeois philosopher, knownfor his irony and satire. Royal historian under Louis XV. Published 70 volumes. Inspired by England: John Locke, Newton, relative free press—wants these things for France. Interpreted English culture for a French audience. Favored "natural religion". Scorned aristocratic-controlled Catholic Church. Enlightened despots OR republics. Not a democrat. Liberal middle-class 18th century values.

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Assembly of Notables

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AlthoughLouis XVI accepted Calonne’s proposal to convene an Assembly of Notables,chosen from the country’s elites, and to seek their endorsement for acomprehensive reform program, the monarchy had already frittered away theprestige and authority that might have allowed this gamble to succeed. Repeatedchanges of policy in the previous decades had made the public wary of royal initiatives.Louis XV’s sexual adventures, especially his public liaison with Mme du Barry,widely rumoured to have once been a prostitute, had severely damaged themonarchy’s image. Louis XVI’s embarrassing inability to consummate his marriagewith Marie-Antoinette for seven years also undermined respect for the throne,which suffered a further blow from the Affair of the Diamond Necklace of1785–86, in which a high-ranking prelate was accused of having tried to seducethe queen. The Assembly of Notables that Calonne had suggested met in February1787. The minister presented a program that offered the country’s upper classessome voice in lawmaking in exchange for their consent to the abolition of manytraditional privileges, particularly the nobility’s immunity to taxes. Althoughhe did not suggest the creation of a national parliament, Calonne’s planinvolved the establishment of provincial assemblies that would oversee the useof public money. Even though Calonne’s proposals were a major step in thedirection of representative government and the abolition of special privileges,the notables refused to accept proposals put forward by a minister who theyheld responsible for previously worsening the deficit. Desperate to obtainbadly needed new revenues, Louis XVI replaced Calonne with Loménie de Brienne,archbishop of Toulouse, who had been one of Calonne’s strongest critics in theAssembly of Notables. Almost at once Loménie reversed himself and came toCalonne’s conclusion: the state could not go on as it had. The notables,however, refused to be more amenable to Loménie than they had been to Calonne.Despairing of securing the consent of the privileged orders, Loménie dismissedthe assembly in May of 1787, and in August the Paris Parlement was exiled toTroyes.co%TJ{

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Maupeu

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(1714-1792)chancellor of France who succeeded in temporarily (1771–74) depriving the Parlements (high courts of justice) ofthe political powers that had enabled them to block the reforms proposed by theministers of King Louis XV. By rescinding Maupeou’s measures, King Louis XVI(reigned 1774–92) lost his opportunity to institute fundamental reforms thatmight have prevented the outbreak of the French Revolution. Most importnantminister! Reorganized government without Paris or local Parlements. Parlementsuppressed in 177. No more tax exemptions, everyone must pay. Tax the wealth ofthe government. Works well in a peaceful economy (1770s). When Louis XVI comesto power in 1774, he restores the Parlement. queen.f&T

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Turgot

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(1727--1781), French progressive economist who was an administrator under Louis XV and served as the comptroller general of finance (1774–76) under Louis XVI. His efforts at instituting financial reform were blocked by the privileged classes. It was against the sixth edict of his, that abolishing the corvée, that his enemies, who defended privilege, concentrated their attack. Appealing in vain to the good sense and courage of the young king from whom he had been alienated by a coalition of financiers, place holders, privileged classes, and the religious party at court, he saw his reforms abandoned and, after his dismissal on May 12, 1776, forgotten. Five years later, having published nothing since his public disgrace, he died in Paris attended by a few friends.

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Descartes

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French mathematician and philosopher. “Discourse on Method” mechanism. “Father of Skepticism”—refuting skeptics. A Christian who is afraid scholasticism will destroy Christianity. Provide Christianity with a firmer base. Humans are thinkers. A God of Power and Truth—an engineer. First modern critical thinker.

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Newton

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mass attraction (his writings popularized by Voltaire). God is a detached deity, somewhat austere, an engineer. “God the watch maker” that occasionally intervenes. The universe as a giant clock—mechanistic. But not just a divine mechanic. Newton’s work demystified white light. Divine presence permeates nature—some neo-Platonic leanings.

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War of Austrian Succession

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(1740-1748) aconglomeration of related wars, two of which developed directly from the deathof Charles VI, Holy Roman emperor and head of the Austrian branch of the houseof Habsburg, on Oct. 20, 1740. In the war for the Austrian succession itself,France unsuccessfully supported the dubious claims of Bavaria, Saxony, andSpain to parts of the Habsburg domain and supported the claim of CharlesAlbert, elector of Bavaria, to the imperial crown, all with the overall aim ofcrippling or destroying Austria, France’s long-standing continental enemy.Another pair of wars were the First Silesian War (1740–42) and the SecondSilesian War (1744–45), in which Frederick II the Great of Prussia, allied withFrance, wrested the province of Silesia from Austria and held on to it. A thirdseries of wars centered on the continued conflict between France and Britainover colonial possessions in India and North America (see Jenkins’ Ear, War of;King George’s War).i&9&T

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1685 Edict of Fountainebleu

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Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes, ordered Protestant churches and schools closed. Protestant clergy must leave the country. Protestant lay people ordered to convert, forbidden from emigrating (although many did).

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Siege of Vienna 1683

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Vienna is under pressure from the Ottoman Empire. Many European princes (not France) show up to save Christian Europe.

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Rousseau

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(1712-1778). Swiss Protestant, petty bourgeois, never at ease in French society. Never had social status or money, never trusted anyone. Most influential Enlightenment writer. Society can't satisfy man-it is corrupt and artificial. Reason alone is false? 3rd generation philosophe. "Life in a state of nature." Reason and emotion. Sympathy, intuition, meditation. Deist, Neoplatonist--God of love and beauty. Respected Bible, not Church or clergy. Reacting against over-reason. Rationalism isn't enough. Respect and compassion for ordinary people. Social Contract (1762)--Moral virtues inherent in man. Good men can be produced by improving society. Sacrifice some independence to organize as a civil society. "General will"--prevails over individualism, pursuing best interests.

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Estates General 1789

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Estates elect representatives, list grievances. No one remembers how it works--the last one was convened in 1614. 3rd estate protest the 2:1 ratio of representation. Aristocracy demands control. Propaganda pamphlets distributed. Fears of aristocracy increasing its power drove middle class away. 3rd estate sees itself as "the nation", "the people". Class antagonism 1788-1789.

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Partitions of Poland

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(1772) First partition of Poland. Austria, Russia, Prussia. 1/3 of Poland gone.

(1791)--Russia and Prussia take 1/2 more of Poland. Poland becomes a Russian protectorate.

(1795)--Poland dissolved. Becomes Austrian or Prussian. Orthodox lands mostly go to Russia.

Catherine added 7 million people to her empire this way.

Maria Theresa "wept for the Poles" but she still took Galicia.

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Montesquieu

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(1689-1755). French philosopher who wrote the Spirit of Law (beloved by Catherine the Great). His theory on separation of powers inspired the US constitution and the Declaration of the Rights of Man.

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Spinoza

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(1632-1677) Portuguese-born Dutch Jewish philosopher, forced to flee religious persecution to the Netherlands. Ex-communicated even in broad-minded Netherlands for his acquaintances, his beliefs? undetermined. Questioned Biblical truths, possibly adhered to Cartesianism?

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Cartesianism

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Cartesianism is a species of rationalism, because Cartesians hold that knowledge—indeed, certain knowledge—can be derived through reason from innate ideas. It is thus opposed to the tradition of empiricism, which originated with Aristotle (384–322 bce) and according to which all knowledge is based on sense experience and is therefore (because sense experience is fallible) only probable. In practice, however, Cartesians developed probabilistic scientific theories from observation and experiment, as did empiricists. Cartesians were forced to satisfy themselves with uncertainty in science because they believed that God is omnipotent and that his will is entirely free; from this it follows that God could, if he so wished, make any apparent truth a falsehood and any apparent falsehood—even a logical contradiction—a truth. The human intellect, by contrast, is finite; thus, humans can be certain only of what God reveals and of the fact that they and God exist. Descartes argues that one has certain knowledge of one’s own existence because one cannot think without knowing that one exists;

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Silesia

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Important mining area in central-eastern Europe. Formally part of the Habsburg Empire. Frederick the Great successfully captured it for Prussia and Maria Theresa never got it back. Doubled Prussia's population and increased its economic strength.

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Lafayette

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A constitutional monarchist and head of the National Guard. Liberal lord. Head of Patriot Party in the National Assembly. He issues tricolor cockades to his guards (the king ends up wearing one, they become popular). The patriots were the old regime in Europe and wanted to stop the spread of ideas. Once the Jacobins ascend, Lafayette turns to the lords.

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Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens

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Rousseau and Montesquieu. One of the basic charters of human liberties, containing the principles that inspired the French Revolution. Its 17 articles, adopted between August 20 and August 26, 1789, by France’s National Assembly, served as the preamble to the Constitution of 1791. Equal rights for all citizens. "the people" are sovereign. Freedom of thought and religion. Taxation by consent. Gov. split into three separate branches. Enlightenment principles. Right to property.

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Junkers

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Poor country gentlemen. Officer corps in Prussian army--the highest status. Highest virtue. Obedience, duty, service, honor. Prussian nobles allied in state-building. Service to the state & Lutheran duty. Not strong or wealthy. No taxes for nobility. Guaranteed income and high status. The fact that there were garrisons everywhere made peasant rebellions unlikely. Prussian civil service--extremely efficient and devoted. Not much interest in social mobility.

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Hohenzollern, House of Brandenburg

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Margrave of Brandenburg (Elector) and Grandmaster of Teutonic Knights (cousins) becomes Duke of Prussia (1525). Prussia is a dependency on Poland, independent but not yet sovereign. Lutheran population, but the court becomes Calvinist. Margrave inherits Duchy of East Prussia in 1618. Both elector (HRE) and Duke (of Poland). Lays the foundations for modern Prussia and the Hohenzollern family. Brandenburg emerges only after the 30 Years' War.

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Diderot

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(1713-1784). Chief editor of the Encyclopedia. Jesuit-educated philosopher.