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DU311

Du311

by fidelity900, Aug 2013

Subjects: english voc

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225 Cards in this Set

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	Adaptation	An adaptation strategy seeks to adjust to the effects of climate change.
	Agroforestry	A method of farming that attempts to mimic the structures of tropical forests by planting different crops at staggered heights and utilising less synthetic farming methods.
	Albedo	Albedo is a measure of the reflectivity of a surface.
	Alternative food networks	Food networks that work to grow and provision food in a way that attempts to connect producers and consumers more closely, often with a focus on high quality foods that are produced and consumed at a more local level.
	Anarchy	Anarchy is a dispersal of political authority and of the coercive means to uphold collective decisions.
	Anthropogenic	The term anthropogenic refers to something that is caused or influenced by humans.
	Appropriationism	The de-coupling of farming from physical processes through the replacement of agricultural inputs with industrially-produced alternatives.
	Bilateral activists	Bilateral activists are professionals who operate simultaneously in both international and domestic spheres of influence and possess both close ties to domestic politics and a broad exposure to international resources and ideas.
	Bilateral agreement	An agreement between two states.
	Biodiversity	This refers to the variability of life in the living world.
	Biodiversity hotspot	An area with a high degree of species richness that is threatened with destruction.
	Bioprospecting	The appropriation, through patenting, of the rights to access to and ownership of genetic material.
	Boomerang effect	Boomerang effect refers to the strategy of environmental movements in developing countries to use transnational activist networks to place external pressure on domestic actors.
	Broadening security	Adding new issues to what was traditionally understood as threats to national security.
	Capacity building	Capacity building involves using resources to construct accountable procedures for policy formation and implementation that do not exclude those constituencies that are affected by a particular issue.
	Capitalism	A social and economic system characterised by the private ownership of the means of production and the employment of wage labour; and in which both wage labour and private owners are subject to the operation of market competition.
	Carbon tax	A carbon tax taxes carbon emissions from industry or households.
	Carrying capacity	In UNCED parlance, carrying capacity refers to the maximum size of population that the Earth can support without detrimental effects.
	Caste system	This is a social hierarchy in India whereby social classes are divided into a set of upper and lower castes according to lineage. Although the Indian Constitution (1949) banned discrimination based on caste, this persists widely in Indian society, especially in rural areas.
	Categorical imperative	The categorical imperative highlights that what applies to one to applies to all and requires all people in all circumstances to ‘do as they would be done to’ and hence promotes a fair society.
	Classical liberalism	Classical liberalism developed in Great Britain in the nineteenth century and held that each individual should enjoy as much liberty as any other.
	Co-activism	Co-activism means that each policy should address all the different constituencies as part of a coordinated campaign.
	Cognitive liberation	Cognitive liberation refers to the process in which the ideas that were initially politically marginal become politically acceptable.
	Collective action problem	A collective action problem is one that requires cooperation. It cannot be solved by any one single actor alone. (B1 C1)
	Co-management	An approach to resource management and nature conservation in which government and communities work together.
	Command and control	Command and control policy measures are government directives to polluters to change their behaviour in specified ways.
	Community conserved area	An approach to nature management in which primary decision making authority rests with local communities.
	Compliance	‘the fulfilment by the contracting parties of their obligations under a multilateral environmental agreement and any amendments to the multilateral environmental agreement’ (UNEP 2001)
	Concession	A contract under which the private operator manages the entire utility and is required to invest in the maintenance and expansion of the system at its own commercial risk.
	Consequentialism	Consequentialism is an approach to ethics that focuses on the desirability of the consequences of behaviour, rather than on the desirability of intentions or motivations.
	Conservation	This may be seen as an approach that emphasises the efficient conservation of natural resources for development.
	Consultation	Consultation is an arrangement whereby actors may be asked to provide their views on an issue to policy makers.
	Consumption sustainability	Minimising the environmental impact of the consumption of their products.
	Consumptive use	The exploitation of species for food, hunting or other reasons within conservation limits.
	Contractarian approaches	Contractarian approaches argue through the notional agreement between individuals and the state, in which individuals surrender some natural rights for benefits provided by the state.
	Corporate social responsibility	A movement among businesses wishing to be seen to embrace a wider range of issues and stakeholders in their decision making, including addressing working conditions and environmental considerations.
	Critical approach	Critical approach allows for system transformation by admitting the possibility that contemporary social structures, institutions and power distributions could themselves contribute to the problem.
	Customary law	Practices adopted and recognised by sovereign states as binding.
	Decentralisation	A process whereby resources and decision-making power are delegated to lower levels of government, typically at the local level.
	Decoupling	Decoupling refers to breaking the link between environmental damage and economic growth.
	Deepening security	Including more objects to be secured beyond the state, which is the traditional object of security.
	Deliberative democracy	Deliberative democracy describes processes of public and stakeholder participation that enable knowledge, values and ideas to be discussed openly in order to provide a basis for more informed political decisions.
	Demographic transition	The transition from high fertility accompanied by high mortality to low fertility accompanied by low mortality.
	Direct cause	A direct cause is a cause that leads directly to an observed effect.
	Disciplinary neoliberalism	Disciplinary neoliberalism is a model of capitalism that operates through market forces and interventions of powerful states to support the rights of business and investors.
	Discounting	Discounting is a mathematical technique for converting future costs (or benefits) into an equivalent present value.
	Discourse	A discourse is a body of language – an established way of thinking about things and expressing certain ideas - that is unified by certain assumptions.
	Displaced populations	People who move or are displaced within their own country and, given that they have not crossed an international border, are not offered protection under the 1951 Geneva Refugee Convention.
	Divestiture	A process of privatisation whereby the state transfers the business, including the infrastructure, to a private company on a permanent basis through the sale of the shares in the company.
	Ecocentrism	Ecocentrism is the view that humans should respect nature and its limits, rather than try to control nature.
	Ecofeminism	A social movement and set of intellectual theories that extend a feminist approach to nature, by making a connection between the degradation of the environment and the oppression of women.
	Ecological citizenship	Ecological citizenship is a concept of citizenship that is non-territorial and is concerned with the responsibility people have for the implications of their actions on the environment.
	Ecological economics	Ecological economics holds that there are physical limits to economic growth.
	Ecological modernisation (EM)	Ecological modernisation describes the contemporary technical and political approaches to environmental conservation.
	Ecological resilience	Ecological resilience is the magnitude of disturbance a system can absorb before changing to another state.
	Ecologically sustainable development	Ecologically sustainable development is about keeping ecosystems healthy and interacting with ecosystems in ways that allow them to maintain sufficient functional integrity to continue providing humans and all other creatures in the ecosystem the food, water, shelter and other resources that they need.
	Economic inequalities	Wealth and income differentials between states, social groups and individuals.
	Economy of scale	Increasing the scale or volume of production in order to reduce costs and increase the efficiency of output production.
	Ecozone	A continental or sub-continental terrestrial area with unifying features of geography, fauna and flora.
	EMAS is an EU	Voluntary programme in which organisations that meet certain environmental performance criteria become EMAS registered.
	Energy tax	An energy tax taxes the use of energy irrespective of its source.
	Environmental economics	Environmental economics is the application of neoclassical economics to environmental issues.
	Environmental Impact Assessment	Environmental Impact Assessment is an analytical process that examines environmental consequences of projects and policies and provides accounts of alternative courses of actions prior to their implementation.
	Environmental Kuznets Curve	A model which argues that greater economic growth is positively correlated with reduced pollution.
	Environmental policy integration	In principle, environmental policy integration means the integration of environmental considerations in the design and implementation of policy.
	Environmental refugees	People displaced due to environmental degradation or environmental problems.
	Epistemic community	One cognitive explanation of international cooperation is the theory of the epistemic community. The antecedent of the word 'epistemic' comes from the Greek word episteme for knowledge.
	Epistemology	An area of philosophical study called epistemology. Derived from the Greek words episteme for knowledge and logos for reason, epistemology is the study of how knowledge is produced, validated and accepted.
	Equilibrium	A firm is in equilibrium when it maximises its profits.
	Ethics	[no marginal definition]
	EU decision	Legislation specified towards, and binding on, particular actors within the EU.
	EU directive	EU law that requires member states to achieve a specific target within a specified time period but permits discretion on the ways in which it will be achieved.
	EU regulation	A legislative act of the European Union, directly applicable in member states.
	Europeanisation	Europeanisation is the process in which national institutions and policies adapt to EU policies while also themselves influencing policies and institutions at the EU level.
	Extraordinary measures	Emergency action advocated by securitisation.
	Fair trade	Schemes that seek to pay farmers in developing countries a minimum price for their produce above the world market prices.
	Falsification	Induction can be contrasted with falsification … Falsification is attributed to the philosopher Karl Popper who argued that although the truth exists it is elusive; humans can never really know what the truth is (Figure 2.3). The testing of hypotheses does not yield the truth, argued Popper; it merely tells us what is not false.
	Feedback effect	A feedback effect is a change within a system that will either enhance or diminish an original effect.
	Feminism	Social movement and intellectual theories that focus on inequalities based on gender.
	Fertility rate	The average number of children a woman will have during her lifetime if she were to live to the end of her childbearing years.
	Flagship species	A species that symbolises conservation in a particular ecosystem or area.
	Food networks	Food networks link together the processes of food production and consumption in a series of ecological, material, economic, political and cultural relationships.
	Framework convention	A treaty that specifies general principles relating to a problem, but does not contain specific commitments which legally binding on signatories. Framework conventions are often followed by the negotiation of protocols which elaborate specific binding commitments on the parties.
	Framing	Framing is a social science concept that holds that statements about reality are always shaped at least in part by social influences. (B1 C1)
	Free-riding	Free-riding is where an actor in a collection action problem seeks to benefit from the provision of a public good by others while avoiding bearing the costs
	Genetic engineering	The practice of genetically modifying crops in order to express particular traits such as herbicide resistance.
	Geometric rate	Denotes a growth rate by a constant proportion in each time period. For example if the quantity doubles every 25 years, then the sequence would be 1 / 2 / 4 / 8 / 16 / 32 / 64 /…
	Global governance	Global governance is the ordering of international politics and policy by a plurality of actors including governments, international institutions, NGOs, citizens’ movements, business and the capital markets.
	Governance	Set of processes, not limited to formal institutions of government, involving ‘the establishment and operation of a set of rules of conduct that define practices, assign roles, and guide interaction so as to grapple with collective problems’ (Stokke, 1997, p. 28).
	Government	The formal collection of offices in a political system able to enforce rules over a given territory, backed ultimately by the legitimate use of force (Dahl, 1970).
	Green Revolution	The application in developing countries of a ‘package’ of irrigation, mechanisation and agricultural chemicals (pesticides and fertilisers), together with new seed types, in order to promote the production of basic staple foods in developing countries.
	Greenhouse effect	The greenhouse effect is an atmospheric warming effect caused by the trapping of solar radiation in the atmosphere by greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide.
	Gross Domestic Product	Gross Domestic Product is the total market value of all goods and services produced within a country in the calendar year.
	Hierarchy	A ranked order of political authority with the sovereign power of the state at the top.
	High-income country	A country’s level of income depends on its earnings (e.g. domestic goods and services, exports, interest, dividends) minus expenditure (e.g. imports, interest payments, public administration). The World Bank in 2008 defined countries according to their per capita Gross National Income (GNI), as follows: high-income US$ 11,116 or more; middle-income US$ 906-11,115; and low-income up to US$ 905.
	Human security	A concern with human life and dignity that incorporates the freedom of ‘doing’ things.
	Hypothesis	An hypothesis is a proposed explanation for something.
	Implementation	Refers to, among other things, ‘all relevant laws, regulations, policies, and other measures and initiatives, that contracting parties adopt and/or take to meet their obligations under a multilateral environmental agreement and its amendments, if any’ (UNEP 2001)
	Incorporation	Incorporation of environmental groups refers to the process by which they are active participants in consultation on policy formation and implementation. In some cases, this can include partnerships with governments and corporations.
	Indigenous knowledge	Indigenous knowledge is knowledge generated by people in a certain area. It forms the basis of the art of identifying, unfolding and protecting local resources.
	Induction	Within positivism there are different methods of scientific methods of scientific reasoning, different scientists may advocate different approaches. A common approach is induction. An inductive theory moves from a series of observations to a conclusion.
	Industrial farming	The industrial farming paradigm involves the production of foods and agricultural commodities through the use of mechanisation, synthetic chemicals (pesticides and herbicides), and fertilisers, which have had problematic social and environmental outcomes, and have been supported by a particular configuration of social, political, ecological and economic forces.
	Industrialisation	The structural shift in a nation’s economy away from smallholder agriculture, simple primary extraction and household-based production, towards the large-scale production of goods of increasing technological complexity and demanding increased energy use and new forms of social organisation.
	Inequalities of knowledge	Knowledge differentials between states, social groups and individuals.
	Infant mortality rate	Number of deaths of infants (one year of age or younger) per 1000 live births.
	Informal settlement (‘slum’)	Settlements that are established on land that is not owned by the occupiers, and without permission of the landowner or urban authorities. Informal settlements are mostly formed by low-income urban groups who cannot afford to buy land or housing, and therefore often on unsuitable and unserviced sites.
	Instrumental value	The value of something (e.g. the environment) as a means to satisfying some other need or want.
	Intellectual property right	The right of a person or organisation to use and benefit from something that they have discovered or created.
	Inter/national security	Protection from the military threats posed by other states.
	Intergenerational equity	Intergenerational equity is the principle of fairness over time, that the present generation should not impose unfair or undue burdens on future generations.
	International environmental law	A body of rules and regulations that exist between sovereign states and addresses a range of environmental issues.
	Intragenerational equity	Intragenerational equity is the principle of fairness over space, that actions should not impose an unfair or undue burden on individuals or groups within the present generation.
	Intrinsic value	The value of something (e.g. the environment) in and of itself.
	Just sustainability	Just sustainability involves practical solutions that simultaneously address social and environmental justice and is concerned with both preventing ‘bads’ ending up in marginalised communities and getting access to environmental ‘goods’.
	Keystone species	A species that has an impact on an ecosystem that is disproportionately large relative to its abundance.
	labour productivity	The production of more output per unit of labour time.
	Landscape	Landscape, in the Soviet science conceptualisation, was a complex dynamic system of the Earth’s surface, in which living organisms and inorganic matter penetrated into each other, were very closely linked and deeply interdependent.
	Law	A rule, or set of rules, which govern communities by enjoining or prohibiting certain actions, enforced by the imposition of penalties.
	Legal personality	The characteristic of an artificial entity such as a corporation that the law treats for some purposes as if it were a person.
	Legitimacy	Legitimacy is the perception or assumption that the actions of an entity are desirable, proper or appropriate within some socially constructed system of norms, values, beliefs and definitions.
	Liberal citizenship	Liberal citizenship places emphasis on the rights of individuals within the framework of the rules of law.
	Liberal environmentalism	The application of neoliberal market principles to environmental policy.
	libertarianism	Libertarianism is a contemporary restatement of the view that individuals should enjoy as much liberty as possible.
	Limited liability	The legal mechanism by which a person’s financial liability is limited only to the amount they have invested in a company or partnership set up with limited liability.
	Low-income country	A country’s level of income depends on its earnings (e.g. domestic goods and services, exports, interest, dividends) minus expenditure (e.g. imports, interest payments, public administration). The World Bank in 2008 defined countries according to their per capita Gross National Income (GNI), as follows: high-income US$ 11,116 or more; middle-income US$ 906-11,115; and low-income up to US$ 905.
	Market failure	Market failure occurs when a market fails to allocate resources to the greatest possible benefit of society.
	Market-based instruments (MBIs)	Market-based instruments (MBIs) raise the price of a good whose production or consumption causes pollution.
	Meeting of the parties (MOP)	Regular negotiations among signatories of the Montreal Protocol, normally numbered sequentially, to review treaty implementation and if necessary amend obligations. Similar to Conference of the Parties (COP) which take place under the FCCC
	Middle-income country	A country’s level of income depends on its earnings (e.g. domestic goods and services, exports, interest, dividends) minus expenditure (e.g. imports, interest payments, public administration). The World Bank in 2008 defined countries according to their per capita Gross National Income (GNI), as follows: high-income US$ 11,116 or more; middle-income US$ 906-11,115; and low-income up to US$ 905.
	Mitigation	A mitigation strategy seeks to reduce greenhouse gas emissions or enhance carbon sinks.
	Modernity	A symbolic identity of progress resulting from the social, economic and material benefits delivered by the process of modernisation (itself largely based on industrialisation).
	Moral considerability	Moral considerability involves addressing the question of whose interests should be taken into consideration within the terms of a particular moral approach.
	Mortality rate	Number of deaths per 1000 individuals per year.
	Multilateral agreement	An agreement coordinating relations between three or more states based on generalized rules of conduct.
	Multilateralism	Multilateralism refers to multiple governments cooperating together to solve shared problems.
	Multinational corporation	A company that operates in a number of different countries, either in terms of productive or service activities or in terms of having subsidiaries or affiliates in several countries.
	Municipality	An administrative area at the local government level.
	Natural rights tradition	The natural rights tradition is based on the notion that there are natural laws and rights that exist in nature and across different societies.
	Negative externality	A market transaction causes a negative externality when it reduces the well-being of someone who is neither the buyer nor the seller in the transaction.
	Neoclassical economics	Neoclassical economics studies the price mechanism in a market economy.
	Neofunctionalism	Neofunctionalism is a theory of European integration which claims that economic integration ultimately leads to political integration.
	Neoliberalism	Neoliberalism holds that government should have a very limited role in economic activity, which should be left to the private sector and the market.
	Neo-Malthusianism	Holds that population growth is a prominent cause of environmental degradation.
	New Social Movement theory	New Social Movements theory is concerned with new grievances and collective interests, values and identities.
	No detriment principle	A principle which states that trade in a species can continue (commercially for Annexe II species; non-commercially for Annexe I species) only if it is shown to pose no detriment to the survival of the species.
	Non-governmental organisations	Non-governmental organisation is a non-profit and voluntary citizens’ organisation with the status of a legal entity that pursues goals shared by its members and supporters.
	Non-tariff barriers	Non-tariff barriers are national standards (for example, health regulations) that have an effect equivalent to tariffs by deterring imports.
	Opportunity cost	Opportunity cost refers to the alternative that must be foregone when an economic resource is used.
	Organic agriculture	The production of agricultural produce without synthetic inputs (e.g. fertiliser, pesticide).
	Overpopulation	A situation where population numbers in a given area surpass the area’s ability to sustain them.
	Participation	Participation is an arrangement whereby actors have a genuine opportunity to partake in policy making and to affect outcomes.
	Participatory budgeting	A policy whereby a portion of the city’s budget is delegated to a neighbourhood, which defines how to allocate it according to local needs and priorities.
	Peripheralisation	Peripheralisation describes a process of inequality whereby communities suffer environmental risk or degradation as a result of becoming geographically, economically and politically marginalised.
	Philosophical ethics	Philosophical ethics is the systematic study of moral questions.
	Policy network	An interconnected system of actors working on a particular policy issue.
	Political inequalities	Power differentials between states, social groups, and individuals engaged in domestic or international politics.
	Political Process Model	Political Process Models explain social movements by external conditions and in particular by external political opportunities for their mobilisation
	Political will	Political will refers to the determination and commitment of a political system to implement a desired policy, irrespective of the costs and constraints.
	Population density	Number of people per area of land.
	Population growth	The net increase in the number of individuals, normally specified for a particular territory or the world as a whole, and for a given period of time. Its calculation includes three components: births, deaths and, when a particular territory is considered, migration.
	Population stabilisation	No net increase or decrease in population.
	Positive externality	When a transaction improves the well being of someone who is not the buyer or seller.
	Positive-sum games	Positive-sum game is one where total net gains – those of all participants added together – are positive.
	Positivism	The classical view of science as the disinterested pursuit of the truth is expressed through positivism, an epistemological approach that holds that there is a real world that can be studied and discovered through observation, measurement and analysis.
	Postcolonialism	Social movement and intellectual theories that focus on the continuity of colonial practices after the end of colonialism.
	Postmaterialism	Postmaterialism refers to value orientation that is concerned with identity and lifestyle rather than with material benefits.
	Power	[no marginal definition]
	Precautionary principle	According to the precautionary principle, lack of scientific certainty is no excuse for postponing the implementation of measures to prevent environmental degradation.
	Preservation	This may be seen as the protection of nature from human development.
	Prevention principle	Prevention principle refers to taking action before the damage occurs. In contrast to the precautionary principle (introduced in Book 1, Chapter 1), the prevention principle refers to tackling risks under certainty.
	Prior and informed consent	The principle that waste will only be traded internationally with the explicit consent of exporting and importing states. Consent has to be given before trade takes place, and informed by a full understanding of the risks. In particular, it requires verification that the importing state has the institutional and technical wherewithal to handle the waste in a safe manner.
	Problem-solving approach	Problem-solving approach seeks to solve environmental problems without questioning the foundational principles, values and power relations of social order.
	Production sustainability	Minimising environmental impacts of growth in production.
	Protected area	A designated area of land or sea that is dedicated to the protection of biodiversity and of natural and cultural resources.
	Protocol	A follow up to a framework agreement which specifies in detail the targets, actions and obligations agreed by the parties.
	public goods	Public good is one that is non-excludable and non-rival and is jointly supplied and non-congested in consumption.
	Public-private partnership	A collaboration whereby public sector actors hire or work with private sector actors to deliver a public service.
	radiative forcing	Radiative forcing is the difference between incoming and outgoing radiation from the sun.
	Rebound effect	The rebound effect refers to growing demand for goods and services as a result of increased technological efficiency.
	Reductionism	The scientific method of analysing a complex phenomenon by breaking it into smaller, less complex, constituent parts.
	Reformist model of sustainable consumption	The reformist model of SC refers to resource efficiency gains achieved by market transformation driven by consumers’ choices. No change of lifestyle is required.
	Regimes	‘sets of implicit or explicit principles, norms, rules and decision-making procedures around which actors’ expectations converge in a given area of international relations’ (Krasner 1983: 2)
	Replacement fertility rate	The average number of children a woman would have to replace herself and her partner. This is affected by mortality, particularly child mortality, hence the generally accepted statistical rate in the developed world is 2.1.
	Representative democracy	Representative democracy is a system of government whereby people elect representatives to a legislature in free, secret ballot elections. Examples include the British House of Commons and the US Congress.
	Republican citizenship	Republican citizenship demands that citizens prioritise the interests of their political community over their personal interests.
	Resource Mobilisation Approach	Resource Mobilisation Approach to social movements emphasises the importance of organisational resources such as skilled organisers, money and knowledge.
	Responsibilization	The process whereby agents take direct responsibility for their actions, creating their own codes of conduct by which they may operate, and making themselves accountable for their actions through self-policing and voluntary compliance.
	Securitisation	The process through which particular problems are framed as security threats.
	Security knowledge	Expertise that exists in a given professional field.
	Side payments	Side-payments are arrangements in which one party offers inducements to another in order to reach cooperative agreements.
	Social construction of nature	Nature is always historical, shaped materially and defined according to different framings, which in turn influence our interactions with, and understandings of, the non-human world.
	Social democracy	An approach that seeks to increase economic and social equality through regulation of capitalism.
	Social movement	Social movement is a sustained collective challenge to established elites, practices or values, with the aim of bringing about change.
	Social nature	A term used to express the idea that nature is never purely natural, but always shaped and framed by humans to some degree.
	Social optimum	Social optimum in a collective action game occurs when the sum total of the players’ pay-offs is at a maximum.
	Socialism	A social and economic system in which there is a dominant role for state or other collective ownership of the means of production, and the production and distribution of goods and services is determined by bureaucratic planning or other collective decision making processes.
	Socio-economic status	A measure of a person’s social and economic situation, usually based on education, class, employment and income.
	Speech act	Utterances that do something rather than simply describe reality.
	State of nature (Hobbes)	Hypothetical situation in which individuals fight each other.
	State preferences	What states want or seek to achieve.
	Structural adjustment policies	Economic and public policy reforms that were implemented in indebted low and middle income countries by international financial institutions such as the IMF and World Bank in order to reduce public spending and ensure that indebted countries could service their debts.
	Supranational	Supranationalism refers to processes in which decisions are made by institutions which are largely independent of national governments, i.e. processes above states.
	Sustainable development	The Brundtland Commission defined sustainable development as ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.’
	Tariff	Tax or duty levied on imports, normally used to protect domestic producers.
	Technocentrism	Technocentrism is the view that environmental problems can be solved through human invention and technology.
	Technology-based standards	Technology-based standards require producers to use a specified technology.
	Theory of structuration	The theory of structuration holds that there is a dualism between agents and structures, with each shaping the other.
	Thermal expansion	Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter or liquid, in this case sea water, to increase in volume in response to an increase in temperature.
	Threat point/fall-back position	Fall-back position/threat point: how a party to a negotiation would fare if they walked away from the negotiation.
	Tort claim	The name given to a body of civil law that creates, and provides remedies for, harms that do not arise from contractual duties. Generally speaking, tort law defines what constitutes a legal injury, and establishes the circumstances under which one person may be held liable for another’s injury.
	Transcience	Alvin Weinberg used the term transcience to describe those questions that can in principle be formulated in scientific terms – in terms of independent and dependent variables – but which cannot be answered with certainty because science cannot measure all the variables concerned nor are they likely to understand how these variables interrelate (1972).
	Transnational activist network	Transnational activist network refers to actors working internationally on an issue, who are bound together by shared values, a common discourse, and dense exchanges of information and services.
	Uncertainty	Uncertainty is a condition that arises when something cannot be precisely measured, established or understood.
	Uneven development	Refers to the unevenness of social development in wealth, technology and social organisation across time and space. Theories of uneven development relate and seek to explain social inequalities and differential environmental changes, and their uneven costs and benefits, to the process of capitalist development (Smith, 1984).
	Urban centre	A human settlement with a population large enough to be classified as urban, that is, anywhere from 500 to 20,000 people, depending on the country.
	Urban change	An umbrella term that comprises both urbanisation and urban growth.
	Urban development	The process of material change whereby an urban area becomes urban, or an existing urban area is improved.
	Urban environmental governance	The rules, conduct, practices and roles by which urban environments are managed.
	Urban growth	An increase in the number and size of urban centres.
	Urbanisation	An increase in the proportion of a population living in settlements defined as urban centres.
	Voluntary agreements	Voluntary agreements are promises by polluters to achieve a specified reduction in pollution.
	Voluntary simplicity	Voluntary simplicity is a choice out of free will to limit expenditures on consumer goods and services and to cultivate non-materialistic sources of satisfaction and meaning.
	Water privatisation	Processes that increase the participation of (formal) private enterprises in water and sewerage services, but do not necessarily involve the transfer of assets.
	World/risk society	A society characterized by the ubiquity of risks.
	Zero-sum game	A game in which the sum of the benefits and losses of actors is zero.

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