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300 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What is the nervous system?
The master controlling and communicating system of the body.
What is animal physiology?
The study of the way animals work.
______: through millions of sensory receptors that monitor the changes (or stimuli) inside and outside the body.
Input
_________: processes and interprets the sensory input and decides what to do at each moment
Integration
________: effects or causes a response by activating muscles or glands (effectors) via motor output
Output
Structural Classification

Central Nervous System (CNS)


Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Functional classification (PNS):

Sensory/afferent:


•Somatic fibres


•Visceral fibres


Motor/efferent:


•Somatic nervous system (voluntary)


•Autonomic nervous system (involuntary)



What are the two types of cells?

1.Supporting cells/neuroglia/glial cells


2.Nerve cells/neurons

Central Nervous System cells:

1.Astrocytes- star shaped cells


2.Microglia- spiral-like cells


3.Ependymal cells- form protective cushion around neurons


4.Oligodendrocytes - produce insulating

Peripheral Nervous System cells:

1. Schwann cells - supporting cells (shields)


2. Satellite cells - protective cushion

Metabolic center with a nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm.
Cell Body
Neurons transmit...
Messages
What are electrical signals moving towards the cell body?
Dendrites
What are electrical signals moving away from the cell body?
Axons
What is the gap that separates neurons?
Synaptic cleft
Whitish, fatty material covering most nerve fibres
Myelin sheath
Gaps in the myelin sheath are called:_______
Nodes of Ranvier
Myelin sheaths increase the transmission of...
Nerve Impulses
Clusters of neuron cell bodies in the CNS
Nuclei
Clusters of neuron cell bodies in the PNS
Ganglin
Bundles of nerve fibres running through the CNS
Tracts
Bundles of nerve fibres running through the PNS
Nerves
Dense collection of myelinated fibres
White Matter
Unmyelinated fibres and cell bodies
Gray Matter
Impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS
Sensory Neurons
Cutaneous sense organ
Skin
Proprioceptors
Muscles and Tendons
Connect the motor and sensory neurons
Association neurons (Interneurons)
Touch, pressure, vibration and temperature are:
Cutaneous senses
Sensing of body position is:
Propioception
External mechanical forces initiate the perception of touch, pressure, cutaneous tension, etc. by sensory receptors associated with a variety of non-neuronal elements (e.g. hairs, encapsulations of nerve endings).
Cutaneous/Subcutaneous system
Internal mechanical forces like those on muscles, tendons and joints. Gives the perception of the position and status of the limbs and other body parts.
Proprioceptive system
Bare nerve endings
Pain system
What is an example of hair follicle mechanoreceptors?
Whiskers
What stimuli activates nerve endings?

1. Extreme heat


2. Extreme cold


3. Chemical irritants

What are the two major functional properties of nerve impulses?

1. The ability to respond to a stimulus


2. the ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons, muscles, or glands

What does it mean when the plasma membrane of an inactive neuron is polarized?
Fewer positive ions sitting on the inner face than on it's outer face
What is the major positive ions outside an inactive cell?
Sodium
What is the major positive ions inside an inactive cell?
Potassium

Sodium is in a much higher concentration outside the cell, the diffuses quickly into the neuron.


What is this event called?

Depolarization
The local depolarization initiates and transmits a long-distance signal called _______.
Action potential = Nerve Impulse
Conducted over the entire length of the neuron, or it doesn’t happen at all.
All-or-None responce
Immediately after the sodium ions rush into the neuron, the membrane becomes impermeable to ___________ permeable to ____________.
Sodium, Potassium
This outflow of positive ions restores the electrical conditions to the resting (polarized) condition is called _______.
Repolarization
After repolarization the initial concentrations of the sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) ions inside and outside the neuron are restored by activation of the _________.
Sodium-Potassium pump
Why do fibers that have myelin sheaths conduct impulses faster?
Nerve impulses jump from node to node.
Why do sedatives and anaesthetics block nerve impulses by altering membrane permeability?
No sodium entry = no action potential
Why does cold/pressure impair impulse conduction?
Interrupts blood circulation = no oxygen, nutrients to the nerve.
How does the electrical impulse traveling along one neuron get across the synapse to the next neuron?
A neurotransmitter (chemical) crosses the synapse (gap) to transmit the signal from one neuron to the next.
The neurotransmitter binds to a _________ on the next neuron and sodium entry, etc. occurs.
Receptor
Most neurons communicate via chemical types of synapses, there are some examples of electrical types/neurons that are physically joined by ___________.
Gap Junctions
When neurons communicate at chemical synapses... the electrical changes opens ________channelsand ________ containing the neurotransmitter fuse with the axon membrane and release the transmitter. The neurotransmitter diffuse across the synapse to bind to receptors on the next neuron.
Calcium, vesicles
The whole series of events described before will occur: ion channels open, _________ entry, depolarization.
Sodium
Neurotransmitter is removed from the synapse – either by diffusion away, by reuptake into the axon terminal, or by ___________________= Ion channel closes.
Enzymatic breakdown
Affects the brain synapses in the control of the body movements, is linked to sensations of pleasure such as eating.
Dopamine
Regulates temperature and sensory perception; is involved in mood control.
Seratonin
Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that crosses a ______________ junction.
Neuromuscular
What would happen if this neurotransmitter stayed in synapses?
The muscle would stay in a state of contraction or extension for long periods of time.

5-HT is synthesized from _________.


Precursor of the hormone __________.

Tryptophan, melatonin
Prevent serotonin from being taken back into the neurotransmitter for long periods of time. Allow the use of serotonin already in the cell.
Serotonin-Reuptake Inhibiors
Mucosal 5-HT is present in ________________ cells of the mucosal epithelium triggers peristaltic and secretory reflexes through the activation of enteric and sensory neurons.
Entero-chromaffin
Birds with a _____ central activity of 5-HTdisplayed higher levels of feather pecking than birds with high 5-HT activity.
Low
A ________ receives sensory input,which it sends to the brainfor processing, the brain analyzesthe information and determinesthe appropriate output.
Receptor
Reflexes are ________, __________, _____________ responses.
Rapid, predictable, involuntary
Pulling your finger away from a hot plate – skeletal muscles are activated = _________ reflex
Somatic
_________ reflexes include all the reflexes that regulate the skeletal muscles
Somatic
_____________ reflexes include all muscles that are not skeletal, including glands, heart, digestion, etc.
Autonomatic
Bright light – change in the size of the eye pupils = pupillary reflex an example of an __________ reflex (these regulate body functions = smooth muscles, glands, the heart)
Autonomatic
________ fiber is stimulated by the tendon hammer.
Sensory
Impulse travels via the sensory nerve to the ____________in the grey matter of the spinal cord.
Ventral Horn
It synapses with the ________ neuron which affects a muscular contraction.
Motor
The simple patellar reflex - Knee-jerk reflex is an example of a...
Two Neuron Reflex
When a limb is withdrawn from a painful stimuli; interneuron is involved; the more synapses the longer it takes. This is an example of a...
Three Neuron Reflex
Electronic feeding system has the potential to be used as ________________for pigs, being suitable for reducing aggressive behaviour.
Cognitive Enrichment
The formation of _____ by convolution of the cerebral cortex increases with brain size.
Gyri
_______: gray matter (unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies); cerebrums outer layer, localizes and interprets sensory inputs; control voluntary and skilled skeletal muscle activity; acts in intellectual and emotional processing
Cortex
_____________(ganglia): islands of gray matter, buried deep within the white matter of the cerebral hemispheres, subcortical motor centers help control skeletal muscle movements (problems with basal nuclei – are often unable to walk normally – Huntington/Parkinson’s disease in humans)
Bosal Nuclei
__________: relays sensory impulses to the cortex; relays impulses between the cortex and lower motor systems; involved in memory
Thalamus
_______________: integration of the autonomic system; regulates body temperature, food intake, water balance, thirst; regulates hormonal output=endocrine organ
Hypothalamus
_______________(functional system): includes cerebral and diencephalon structures; mediates emotional responses; memory processing
Limbic System
_________: contains visual and auditory reflex centers, subcortical motor centers, nuclei for cranial nerves
Midbrain
______ : cooperates with medulla to control respiration; relays info from cerebrum to cerebellum
Pons
_________________: relays ascending pathways from skin & proprioceptors; contains nuclei controlling heart & respiratory rate, vomiting, etc.
Medulla Oblongata
_______________ (functional system): maintains alertness; filters out repetitive stimuli; helps regulate skeletal and visceral muscle activity
Reticular formation
The Cerebellum is responsible for proper ________ and _________.
balance, posture
Touch and proprioceptive impulses are transmitted to the _________via large diameter fibres that run in the dorsal columns of the spinal cord and medial lemniscus in the brain
Thalamus
Temperature and pain – via small diameter fibres that run in the ______________tracts of the spinal cord and anterolateral paths in the brain.
Spinothalamic
_____________: the outermost layer – is a double layered membrane around the brain and single layered around the spinal cord.
Dura mater
_______________: the middle layer – it has web-like features.
Arachnoid mater
____________: the innermost membrane – it is delicate and clings tightly to the surface of the brain and spinal cord.
Pia mater
______________ is a watery liquid similar to blood plasma in its content. It forms a cushion around the brain and spinal cord and protects against physical blows and other trauma.It contains less ______ and more vitamin __ and a different ion composition.
Cerebrospinal fluid, protein, C
Neurons are kept separated from blood borne substances by the ______________.
Blood-brain barrier
Only ______, ________ and ___________________ pass easily through the blood-brain barrier.
water, glucose, essential amino acids
The blood-brain barrier is composed of the _______________capillaries in the whole body.
least permiable
In the 1860s, ____% of amputations on human patients were performed without anaesthesia/analgesia
30
Top 2 reasons provided for a lack of analgesics:

Difficulties in recognizing pain and lack of knowledge about appropriate therapy.

Animals are routinely subjected to _________ procedures as a result of animal housing, for aesthetic reasons, for the owner’s benefit and for animal health concerns
Painful
An unpleasant ________ and __________ experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage
Sensory, emotional
Pain consists of 2 components: ____________, physical hurt or discomfort caused by injury or disease; and __________ suffering.
Nociception, emotional
We can see that we share __________ in ancestry, anatomy, physiology (nerve system, functioning cortex – or equivalent system) etc. and we respond in a similar way to similar situations.
Similarities
All vertebrates possess the primitive areas of the brain to process nociceptive information, namely the ________, thalamus, the limbic system and the _______.
medulla, cortex
Alarm system, so that action can be taken to avoid or minimize injury. This usually takes the form of a ___________ reflex.
Withdawl
This sensory capacity is termed ____________, a detection and reflex response to damage, to distinguish it from feeling pain.
Nociception
In the example of a ruptured abscess: _________ and __________ cause the pain.
pressure, inflammation

Specialized sensory receptors responsible for:the detection of extreme pressure or temperature, as well as certain chemicals that damage animal tissue, _________ stimuli, transforming the stimuli into electrical signals, which then travel to the _____.

noxious (unpleasant), CNS
__________________: Is caused by activation (mechanical, thermal, or chemical stimuli) of very small diameter free nerve endings - afferent Aδ and C fibres.
Free nerve endings
__________: When tissue is damaged, chemical substances are released that stimulate these fibers directly– inflammatory mediators.
Mediators
_____________ nociceptors respond to intense pressure.
Mechanical
___________ nociceptors respond to extreme hot or cold temperatures (>45°C or <5°C)
Thermal
________________ nociceptors respond to both thermal and mechanical stimuli.
Mechano-thermal
__________ nociceptors respond to noxious mechanical, thermal, and chemical stimuli and typically have small, unmyelinated C fibers that conduct impulses at a velocity of less than 3 m/s.
Poloymodal
________ nociceptors are activated by chemical stimuli (inflammatory mediators) and respond to mechanical and thermal stimuli only after they have been activated. These nociceptors also have small unmyelinated C fibers that conduct impulses at a velocity of less than 3 m/s.
Silent
_________ stimulate free nerve endings that project to the spinal cord via a cell body in the dorsal root
Chemicals
Activation of most cells by bradykinin is mediated by phospholipase __ and/or phospholipase ___.
C, A2
ATP (Adenosine- 5'-triphosphate) is an important source of _________________ where it is produced during cellular respiration and consumed by many cellular processes.
Intracellular energy
Since ATP is membrane impermeable, receptors for ATP located in the nociceptor plasma membrane are needed to detect the ATP released from damaged cells into the ___________________.
Extracellular space
___________ are released from immune cells such as macrophages and the pain they provoke accompanies inflammatory pain and cancer pain.
Cytokines
___________ and _____________ may be responsible for localised early pain that occurs when a site is injured.
Acetylcholine, potassium ions
____ has a particular role in pains that involve leaking of sarcoplasm from unexhausted muscle.
ATP
_____________ is released from plasma at the site of tissue injury and can be involved in trauma pain and inflammatory pain.
Bradykinin
____________ activates NMDA receptors in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and is responsible for spinally-mediated hyperalgesia.
Glutamate
__________ is released from mast cells and may be responsible for some forms of trauma pain
Histamine
_____________ is involved in delayed, relatively long-lasting hyperalgesia by causing proliferation of dendrites some of which possess nociceptors
Nerve growth factor
_________ accumulate in inflamed or ischaemic tissue and lead to activation of H+-gated cation channels in sensory neurones
Protons
____________ is released from platelets
Serotonin
Which fibre type has non-noxious sensory information?
Aβ fibre
Which fibre types have noxious sensory information?
Aδ and C fibres
Which fibre results in a light, non-painful touch sensation from stimuli?
Aβ fibre
Which fibre results in a fast, localized, pinprickling pain sensation from stimuli?
Aδ fibre
Which fibre results in a slow, dull, poorly localized pain sensation from stimuli?
C fibre
The gray matter of the spinal cord has two posterior projections called ___________ and two anterior projections called ______________.
dorsal horns, ventral horns
_____________ : cell bodies of sensory neurons, near, but outside, the spinal cord
Dorsal root ganglion
____________ : cell bodies of motor neurons of somatic (voluntary) nervous system
Ventral horns
The white matter of the spinal chord is composed of ___________________ - some running to the higher centers.
myelinated fibre tracks

The white matter of the spinal chord is divided into three regions on either side of the cord. What are they?

Dorsal column: contains only ascending tracts (i.e. sensory/afferent input towards the brain) Lateral column: both ascending (sensory/afferent) and descending (motor/efferent – away from brain) tracts


Ventral column: both ascending and descending (motor) tracts

____________ pathway: this tract terminates in the thalamus of the brain; important for pain localization
Spinothalmic
____________ pathway: these nerves enter the brain and the project through the medial lemniscus of the reticular formation into the thalamus; involved in emotional aspects of pain
Spinoreticular
In the spino-thalamic tract pain and temperature afferents enter through ____________ and penetrate the ____________ of the dorsal horn.
Dorsal roots, gray matter
Afferent neurons ascend in the contralateral spinothalamic tract to nuclei within the ____________. There are also projections to the ___________ (periaqueductal grey=PAG). Third order neurons ascend to terminate in the somatosensory cortex.
Thalamus, midbrain
Afferent neurons ascend in the contralateral spino-reticular tract to reach the ____________ reticular formationbefore projecting tothe ___________ and _____________. There are many furtherprojections to the cortex.
Brainstem, thalamus, hypothalamus
__________________ theorizes that painful stimuli can be molded by tough sensations.
Gate control theory
Head rubbing and head pressing are different in calves. ______________ is a normal affectionate behavior, while _____________ is the obvious effort to press the head against a stationary object. Rubbing is a gate to big ___________, blocks pain to smaller neurofibres.
Head rubbing, head pressing, neurofibres
Two important areas involved in descending inhibitory modulation:

1.Midbrain - the periaqueductal grey


2.Medulla- rostral ventromedial medulla

Physiological pain response is confounded by the physiological & behavioural stress response to _______________ & ________________.
tissue damage, handling stress

___________: elevations in the heart rate


___________: elevations in the respiratory rate


___________: various changes in stress hormones (glucocorticoids, etc.)

Cardiovascular, respiratory, endocrine

Three main classes of behavioural changes are useful:


1.Pain specific behaviours


2.Decline in the ________ or _________ of certain behaviours


3.Choice or preference tests

frequency, magnitude
___________ (trippling forward onto the front legs) respond to application of hot-iron.
Escape behaviour
_____________________ –site of injury is manipulated/scrotum palpation following castration.
Defensive behavior
__________: A momentary involuntary muscular contraction. This usually occurs during inactive periods, when the rat is resting. It usually appears on the back of the rat, and is seen as a spasmodic movement of the fur.
Twitching
Visceral pain arises from ________________.
Internal organs
A ____________________ (MGS) was developed to determine facial expressions of pain accompanied by noxious stimuli of moderate duration.
Mouse Grimace Scale
Chickens were able to discriminate different coloured feeds, one of which contained an antibiotic in the _________________.
Self medication test
After abdominal surgery rearing and stretching movements might be painful therefore these movements will _________.
Decline
____________, ___________ and ______________ are serious problems in our human society and in animals kept in human managed systems.
Aggression, violence, social stress
Motivational changes act by way of altering the attention of the animal away from ______. These shifts in attention not only reduced pain but also significantly reduced peripheral inflammation.
Pain

What is an example of aggression?



Aggression between sows after mixing.


Inter-female aggression in breeding rabbits.


Social aggression to unfamiliar dogs.

Aggression can be highly functional – as social communication aimed at active control of the social environment: ____________________, _____________, _____________________.
Establishment of Territory, Social Dominance, Defense of Resources

Adaptive control mechanisms develop to minimize and control physical aggression. Such mechanisms include:


•_______________ behavior


•Taboos


•Ritualization


•_______________


•Reconciliation


•Appeasement

Threatening, Submission
__________ is a behavior that causes or leads to harm, damage or destruction of another organism.
Aggression
Aggression is most likely the ___________ to spacing between individuals.
Sensitivity
___________ aggression: unrelated to the other forms of aggression, attack response is triggered by the presence of a prey object within its visual field.
Predatory

_____________ aggression: aggression induced when an animal is prevented from escape and attacks another animal


Dog aggression to humans is a serious problem and it appears that fear-induced aggression in dogs is often implicated.

Fear induced
___________ aggression: aggression of a mother when it perceives that its pups/chicks are threatened.
Maternal
____________ aggression: induced following the entry of an animal (intruder) into the domain deemed to be established by another animal (resident) = resident-intruder model
Territorial

___________ aggression: Induced when a male is paired with a male of the same species.


It could be due to a variety of reasons (___________, ____________, ___________)

Inter-male


(territory, mating, dominance)

___________: an injurious form of offensive aggression that is out of control and out of context.
Violence
Violence differs both _____________ and _____________ from normal adaptive offensiveness.
Quantitatively, qualitatively
Violence may include ______, _______ at vulnerable body parts.
bites, attacks
The _____________ consists of the medulla oblongata, the pons and the midbrain (menseropahalon) &forms the connection between the spinal cord and the rest of the brain.
Brain stem
The ______________ is the functional group of integrating centres in cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus.
Limbic System
The limbic system is involved in ___________, __________, & ____________.
Emotions, memory, learning
Monoaminergic neurons: contain either ________, dopamine, _______________ or adrenalin.
Serotonin, noradrenalin
The medial hypothalamus is responsible for the ____________ response.
Defense
The lateral hypothalamus is responsible for the ____________ response.
Predatory
Reciprocal inhibitory connections between LH and MH utilize GABA as a neurotransmitter. The relationship allows either ____________ attack or ______________ rage to occur at a given time.
Predatory, defensive
__________ response requires planning and a strategy.
Predatory
Defensive response is __________ and lacks __________ involvement.
Impulse, cortical
___________ male rats will attack unfamiliar males that intrude in its home cage.
Resident

Increased levels of aggression are present in animals that have:


•Abnormal ___________ systems


•Higher brain __________ levels


•Loss of ______ axons

Cholinergic, dopamine, 5-HT
Chemical regulation and communication uses _______ and ________ systems.
Endocrine, nervous
The endocrine system is more slowly acting and uses chemical messengers called __________.
Hormones

Major processes of the endocrine system control are:


•_______________


•Growth and development


•Maintaining electrolyte, water and nutrient balance of the blood


•Regulating cellular metabolism and energy balance


•Defenses against _________

Reproduction, stressors
The most chronic and prolonged response to stress events are the result of the _______________.
Endocrine axes

Four main endocrine axes:


1.Adreno-cortical axis


2.____________ axis


3._________ axis


4.Posterior pituitary axis

Somatotropic, Thyroid
__________ are a substance that acts as a chemical signal; synthesized and secreted by endocrine _______, travel to parts of the body via circulatory system in blood, long distance chemical signalling – long lasting, regulate the metabolic activity of other cells in the body.
Hormones, glands

Hormones are classified chemicals as:


•______________ molecules (includes proteins, peptides and amines)


•__________ (made from cholesterol)


•_________ (prostaglandins)



Amino acid-based, steroids, lipids
_________ hormones are local hormones that act only on the cells where they are secreted, also called prostaglandins.
Lipid
_______________ hormones circulate throughout the bodybut have action only on certain tissue cells or organs – target cells/organs.
Blood borne
Hormone interaction is very _________.
Specific

Steps of hormone action:


•_________________________: hormone binds to specific receptor protein


•_________________________


•___________: a change in cells behaviour

Reception of signal, signal transduction,


responce


Mechanisms of action:


•Changes in plasma membrane permeability or electrical state


•Activation or inactivation of enzymes


•Synthesis of _______ or certain _______________________ in the cell


•Stimulation of ________


•Promotion of secretory activity

Proteins, regulatory molecules, mitosis
Amino acid hormones are ________ soluble - do not pass through the phospholipid plasma membrane and bind to receptor protein on membrane. Case signal transduction pathway inside the cell. This is the ________________ system•E.g.: adrenalin, insulin, growth hormone, FSH, LH, etc
Water, second messenger

Example of second messenger system:

Hormone (____________) binds to the membrane receptor.The activated receptor sets off a series of reactions – activates an enzyme.Enzyme catalyzes reactions that produce cAMP (____________). cAMP oversees additional intracellular changes that promote the typical response.


1st messenger, 2nd messenger

___________ hormones are small, lipid-soluble molecules made from cholesterol. they can pass through the plasma membraneand bind to receptors inside the cell. This is ____________ activation


E.g.: sex hormones (testosterone, oestrogen, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids)

Steroid, direct gene
Direct gene activation is when _______ hormones diffuse through the plasma membrane, then enters the nucleus of the target cell binding to a specific hormone receptor to form a complex.The complex binds to specific sites on the cell’s DNA,activating certain genes to transcribe mRNA. mRNA is translated in the cytoplasm resulting in synthesis of new proteins.
Steroid
___________ stimuli is the most common stimulus.
Hormone
Hormones of the hypothalamus stimulate the pituitary; and hormones from the pituitary stimulate the adrenal cortex. As the final (target cell) hormones increase they “___________” to inhibit release of initial stimulating hormones
Feed back
Hormone stimuli changes blood levels of certain ______ and _________.
Ions, nutrients
___________ fibres stimulate hormone release.
Nerve
________ feedback loop - Some internal or external stimulus triggers hormone secretion.Leads to increase levels of hormones in the body.The rising levels inhibit further hormone release.
Negative

________ glands are __________, release hormones into the blood or lymph


Ex. Hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, adrenal gland.

Endocrine, ductless

__________ glandshave ducts, release their products at the body’s surface or into body cavities


E.g.:pancreas,gonads

Exocrine
The ____________ receives information from nerves and sends nervous and endocrine signals.
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus uses the ____________ to relay directions (hormones) to other glands
Pituitary gland

Posterior pituitary – composed of ________ tissue


Anterior pituitary – composed of _________ cells

Nervous, endocrine
The posterior pituitary acts as a _________ for hormones produced in the hypothalamus, then releases them into the _____________.
Storage, blood stream
___________ is released during parturition (birth) and lactation
Oxytocin
__________ hormone (ADH): inhibits or prevents urine volume production = blood volume increases
Antiduirctic

The anterior pituitary produces and releases six hormones in total:


1.Growth hormone


2._________


3.ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)


4.TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone)


5.FSH(_______________________________)


6.LH (luteinizing hormone)

Prolactin, follicle stimulating hormone

The ____________ glands are essentially two endocrine organs


•Cortex (__________)


•Medulla (________)


The ____________ is central and is surrounded by the cortex.

Adrenal, glandular, neural, medulla

The __________________ consists of three layers of cells (from outermost towards the center):


•Mineralocorticoid-secreting area


•Glucocorticoid-secreting area


•_____________ secreting area

Adrenal cortex, sex hormone

The Adrenal _________ developd from a knot of nervous tissue. Is stimulated by the __________ nervous systemand releases two hormones - ______________


1.Epinephrine (adrenaline)


2.Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

Medulla, sympathetic, catecholamines

What is responsible for “fight-or-flight”


response?

Adrenal Medulla
The ___________ gland makes two hormones:1.Thyroid hormone (major metabolic hormone)2.Calcitonin(Ca2+ metabolism)
Thyroid

Thyroid hormones are:


•___ – triiodothyronine


•___ – thyroxine

T3, T4

_____________ stressors:


•Back to school / Switching schools / New classmates / Exam


•Giving a speech in front of an audience


•Heavy workloads



Phycological

_________ stressors:


•Extreme cold / Lack of shelter / Lack of food

Biogenic

_____________:


Kids playing on the playground (play behavior)

Eustress
Stress is a complex term referring to the _____________ and ____________ changes that occur in response to real or perceived threat to homeostasis – this is called ________.
Psychological, physiological, allostasis
When encountering an aversive stimulus that is interpreted as potentially harmful to the individual (a stressor), the body initiates a complex pattern of ____________, ___________, and ______________ activity (stress response).
Endocrine, neural, immunological

Allostasis affects many bodily functions including changes in:


•Cardiovascular function


•Respiration


•_________ metabolism


•Muscle tension


•__________

Glucose, digestion
Eustress is __________ stress and distress is ________ stress.
Positive, negative
_________is a positive form of stress that may be perceived as pleasurable
Eustress
Eustress can have similar physiological effects as distress including increased heart rate and elevated glucocorticoids; which in themselves are not ___________.
Harmful

Eustress is a ___________ response to demands.


Ex. running during a play bout

Positive
Distress develops over a _______________ period of time
Relatively long

Acute distress can also occur in response to a short, intense stressor. Therefore, an animal may be in _________ even if it appears to recover rapidly after removal of the stressor or the conclusion of the procedure.
Distress

Situations that causes “stress” in an individualare:


1.______________ stressors


2.___________ stressors

Psychosocial, biogenic
Psychosocial stressors must work through ___________________ mechanics – cannot directly cause the stress response. They are real or imagined environmental events.
Cognitive appraisal

Biogenic stressors work directly on _________________________________ – no cognitive-affective processing


Ex. caffeine, nicotine, pain, extreme heat and cold

Neurological triggering nuclei

Coping mechanisms/adaptive changes


•____________ reactions


•Activation of the ______________ nervous system and adrenal medulla


•Secretion of stress hormones (i.e. glucocorticoids)


•Mobilization of the ____________ system

Behavioral, sympathetic, immune
_______ & _________ depends on stressor.
Duration, intensity
________________ restraint – no marked problems in adaptation.
Short-term
________________ restraint – distress sometimes expressed by vocalization and gastric ulcers.
Long-term
What are the steps in motor output?
1. Sensory input-Sensory receptor monitor the changes inside and outside the body2. Integration-Interprets the sensory input, decides what to do3. Output-Causes a response by activating muscles-skeletal system or glands via motor output
What are the functions of the skeletal system?
1. Support/framework-Supports body, cradles soft organs2. Protection-Protection for body's soft organs, e.g. skull protects brain3. Movement-Provides locomotion with muscles4. Storage-Fat is stored in internal cavities of bones, bone mainly stores calcium and phosphorus5. Production of blood cells-Occurs within marrow of certain bones
According to shape and function, there are long, _____, flat, irregular bones that have bone marking (surface is not smooth). According to types of bone tissue, there are ______ bones, which are dense and look smooth, as well as _____ bones, which are needlelike and have lots of open space.
short, compact, spongy
What makes up most of the bone length, and is compact and covered by connective tissue?
Diaphysis or shaft
What makes up the end of the long bone, articular cartilage, and covers the external surface?
Epiphysis
What are the three types of joints?
1. Fibrous-Collagen fibers, e.g. skull - no movement2. Cartilaginous joints-Slightly moveable, e.g. intervertebral joints of the spinal column3. Synovial joints-Freely moveable, articulating bone ends separated by a joint cavity containing synovial fluid
The role of the muscular system is to produce ________, and maintain _______ and body position.
movement, posture
In order to produce locomotion, there must be collaboration between ______ and the ________ system to overcome friction and _______.
muscles, skeletal, gravity
Muscles interact with bones to produce ________.
movement
The skeletal system anchors skeletal _______ so that muscle contractions cause ________.
muscles, movement
Muscles are connected to bones by _______.
tendons
When one muscle is needed to pull the bone to which it is attached in one direction, and a different muscle is needed to reverse the reaction, this is called an ____________ ____.
antagonistic pair
All skeletal muscles _____ at least one joint. Typically, the bulk of a skeletal muscle lies ________ to the joint crossed.
cross, proximal
All skeletal muscles have at least two attachments - the ______ and the _________. Skeletal muscles can only ____, they never ____.
origin, insertion, pull, push
When a muscle is contracted, the insertion moves toward the ______.
origin
What is produced as a byproduct of muscle activity?
Body heat
Skeletal muscle comprises at least ___ of body mass, most responsible for generating heat.
40%
When you work hard, blood vessels ______ so you can release heat. When you are cold, they ______.
expand, shrink
Smooth muscles form ______ to regulate the passage of substances through internal body openings, ______ and _________ the pupils of our eyes, and activate the arrector pili muscles that cause our _____ to stand on end.
valves, dilate, constrict, hairs
What are the three types of muscle tissue? (characterized by location, cell shape, and appearance)
1. Smooth muscle-Single, fusiform, muscle fibers2. Cardiac muscle-Branching chains of cells3. Skeletal muscle-Single, very long muscle fibers
Skeletal muscles are _________ muscles, however, are often activated by reflexes. They are ________ muscles and contract _______, with great force, and as a result ____ rapidly and must rest.
voluntary, striated, rapidly, tire
A muscle fiber is a long, ___________ cell, with many nuclei of periphery. Most of the volume is __________ (organelles of bundles of overlapping thick filament and thin filament). The _________ is composed of contractile protein (actin and myosin).
cylindrical, myofibrils, sacromere
What happens when contractions occur in the muscles?
Filaments more towards each other until they overlap
What happens at the neuromuscular junction when a muscle fibre is stimulated and contraction occurs? (Long)
-Action potential reaches axon terminal of motor neuron-Calcium channels open-Synaptic vesicle release acetylcholine-Acetylcholine diffuses across synaptic cleft and binds to receptors-Simultaneous passage of sodium ions into muscle fiber and potassium out of muscle fiber, producing local change in electrical conditions (depolarization)-Enzyme acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine in synaptic cleft-Process ends
What happens in the sliding filament model when a muscle fibre is stimulated and contraction occurs? (Long)
-Sarcomere contracts when thin filaments slide across thick filament -Thick filment - made of myosin -Thin filament - made of actin-Contraction shortens sarcomere without changing lengths of filaments-When muscle fully contracted, thin filaments overlap in middle of the sarcomere
What happens concerning the contraction mechanism when a muscle fibre is stimulated and contraction occurs? (Long)
-Myosin head has 2 binding sites, actin and ATP -Hydrolyze ATP for energy - powers contraction-Myosin head pivots back and forth in an arc, changing from high to low energy -Binds with actin, drags actin, releases -Returns to starting point -Repeats same motion with different actin
What is muscle fatigue?
The inability of the muscle to contract after a prolonged activity even if it is stimulated
______ ____ builds up during anaerobic exercise.
Lactic acid
When hypocalcaemia occurs in a lactating animal (low calcium levels in blood serum), what happens to cows and dogs respectively?
Cows: Paresis in ruminants, mediated by IV injections of a Calcium Gluconate saltDogs: Stiff gait, appears disoriented
A ______ is the basic anatomical unit of the nervous system (smallest functional unit).
neuron
What does a resting potential mean?
-Inside neuron negatively charged-Sodium ions outside, potassium inside
What happens when there is a neuron transmission signal?
-Depolarization occurs - sodium enters like a wave-Repolarization occurs - potassium gates enter
Neural transmission begins at the ____________ membranes of the dendrites.
postsynaptic
When neural transmission occurs, chemical or electrical processes are initiated, which cause the neuron to conduct the incoming signal through the _________ and the ____ ____, down the axon, until it reaches the ___________ membranes.
dendrites, cell body, presynaptic
Neurotransmitters are the ___ to crossing the synaptic cleft.
key
Where are neurotransmitters present in the axon?
In storage vesicles
Once chemical compounds get the proper cues to migrate toward the presynaptic membrane, they are ultimately __________ into the synaptic _____ to stimulate (or _______) the postsynaptic membrane of the next ______.
discharged, cleft, inhibit, neuron
What are some examples of neurotransmitters?
1. Noradrenalin/Norepinephrine - excitatory2. Serotonin - found in brain stem and limbic system, maintains mood3. Acetylcholine - neuromuscular junctions, preganglionic sympathetic and parasympathetic NS and postganglionic PSNS4. Gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) - major inhibitory neurotransmitter5. Dopamine - mesolimbic system
What does the CNS consist of?
Brain, spinal cord
What are the two parts of the PNS?
1. Somatic/motor nervous system2. Autonomic nervous system
What is the autonomic nervous system subdivided into?
1. Sympathetic nervous system - prepares body for action2. Parasympathetic nervous system - restorative function and relaxation of the body
The stress response consists of a ________ event, cognitive ________ and integration, neurological __________, physiological ________, target organ and _________, and coping behaviour
stressor, appraisal, triggering, response, activation
Psychosocial stressors & biogenic stressors are examples of ________ ______.
stressor events
What is cognitive appraisal?
-Refers to the process of cognitive interpretation i.e. the meanings that are assigned to the world as it unfolds
What is affective integration?
-Refers to the blending and colouring of felt emotion into the cognitive interpretation
Anatomical epicenters are the _________ in the pons/part of the brainstem and the ______ system consisting of numeral neural structures: the hypothalamus, hippocampus, septum, cingulate gyrus and amygdala
brainstem, limbic
What are the physiological pathways?
1. Neural axes-Stress response via neural innervation of target organs2. Neuroendocrine axis-Fight-or-flight response3. Endocrine axis-most chronic aspects of the stress response, greater intensity to activate
What is the highest point of the fight-or-flight response?
Amygdala
When the fight-or-flight response occurs, there is a ________ flow of neural impulses to the ____________. This descends through the thoracic ______ ____, innervating the adrenal gland - more specifically the adrenal _______. This results in a hormonal output of catecholamines (noradrenalin, adrenalin).
downward, hypothalamus, spinal cord, medulla
The most chronic and prolonged response to stress events are the result of the _________ axes.
endocrine
The endocrine axes have four main axes.
1. Adrenal cortical axis2. Somatotropic axis3. Thyroid axis4. Posterior pituitary axis
In the adrenal cortical axis, the ____________ releases CRF, the ________ pituitary releases ACTH and endorphins, and the adrenal ______ releases Glucocorticoids and Mineralocorticoids.
hypothalamus, anterior, cortex
Effort without distress activates what response system?
Sympathetic
Distress without effort activates what response system?
HDAC
Effort with distress activates what response system?
Sympathetic and HDAC
In the somatotropic axis, the ____________ secretes SRF, the ________ pituitary releases growth hormone, and the _______ gland releases T3 and T4.
hypothalamus, anterior, thyroid
The posterior pituitary axis receives neural impulses from the __________ nuclei of the hypothalamus. This releases ADH, and oxytocin.
supraoptic
Good animal welfare is the absence of ____, fear, and hunger, it enables biological __________, it enables experience of positive _________ states, and it enables species-specific _________.
pain, functioning, emotional, behaviour
Poor animal welfare can occur _______ or over ______ term.
briefly, longer
What are some examples of poor animal welfare situations?
Regrouping unfamiliar and familiar piglets, social isolation for some species, exposure to extremes of temperature, maternal deprivation, over crowding, failure to provide analgesics for pain, poor conditions during transport
Assessment of distress is species, ______, and ___ specific behaviour.
gender, age
What are some clinical signs of distress in animals?
-Appearance-Posture-Behaviour-Respiratory rate-Body weight-Temperature-Dehydration
What are endocrinological parameters of assessing distress in animals?
1. Glucocorticosteroids - assessed in hair, feces, saliva, circadian rhythm crucial for collection of samples2. Prolactin and oxytocin - increased during stress3. Growth hormone and luteinizing hormone - also released in response to other stimuli
____________ parameters and _____________ parameters are other means of assessing distress.
neurological, immunological
Useful indicators of stress include...
-Animal's choice to continue or stop feeding while in a stressful situation-Demand studies that titrate the extent of the animal's attraction or aversion to a stressor-Elevated heart rate, blood pressure, glucose levels
A stress response per se is a normal response to internal or environmental disturbance and is ________. Distress occurs when stress is ______ and/or _________. Stress and distress are distinguished by an animal's ability to ____ or _____ to changes in its environment and experience.
adaptive, severe, prolonged, cope, adapt