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300 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What is the nervous system?
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The master controlling and communicating system of the body.
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What is animal physiology?
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The study of the way animals work.
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______: through millions of sensory receptors that monitor the changes (or stimuli) inside and outside the body.
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Input
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_________: processes and interprets the sensory input and decides what to do at each moment
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Integration
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________: effects or causes a response by activating muscles or glands (effectors) via motor output
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Output
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Structural Classification
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Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) |
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Functional classification (PNS):
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Sensory/afferent: •Somatic fibres •Visceral fibres Motor/efferent: •Somatic nervous system (voluntary) •Autonomic nervous system (involuntary) |
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What are the two types of cells?
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1.Supporting cells/neuroglia/glial cells 2.Nerve cells/neurons |
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Central Nervous System cells:
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1.Astrocytes- star shaped cells 2.Microglia- spiral-like cells 3.Ependymal cells- form protective cushion around neurons 4.Oligodendrocytes - produce insulating |
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Peripheral Nervous System cells:
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1. Schwann cells - supporting cells (shields) 2. Satellite cells - protective cushion |
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Metabolic center with a nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm.
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Cell Body
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Neurons transmit...
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Messages
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What are electrical signals moving towards the cell body?
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Dendrites
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What are electrical signals moving away from the cell body?
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Axons
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What is the gap that separates neurons?
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Synaptic cleft
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Whitish, fatty material covering most nerve fibres
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Myelin sheath
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Gaps in the myelin sheath are called:_______
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Nodes of Ranvier
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Myelin sheaths increase the transmission of...
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Nerve Impulses
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Clusters of neuron cell bodies in the CNS
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Nuclei
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Clusters of neuron cell bodies in the PNS
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Ganglin
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Bundles of nerve fibres running through the CNS
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Tracts
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Bundles of nerve fibres running through the PNS
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Nerves
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Dense collection of myelinated fibres
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White Matter
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Unmyelinated fibres and cell bodies
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Gray Matter
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Impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS
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Sensory Neurons
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Cutaneous sense organ
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Skin
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Proprioceptors
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Muscles and Tendons
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Connect the motor and sensory neurons
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Association neurons (Interneurons)
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Touch, pressure, vibration and temperature are:
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Cutaneous senses
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Sensing of body position is:
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Propioception
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External mechanical forces initiate the perception of touch, pressure, cutaneous tension, etc. by sensory receptors associated with a variety of non-neuronal elements (e.g. hairs, encapsulations of nerve endings).
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Cutaneous/Subcutaneous system
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Internal mechanical forces like those on muscles, tendons and joints. Gives the perception of the position and status of the limbs and other body parts.
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Proprioceptive system
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Bare nerve endings
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Pain system
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What is an example of hair follicle mechanoreceptors?
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Whiskers
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What stimuli activates nerve endings?
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1. Extreme heat 2. Extreme cold 3. Chemical irritants |
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What are the two major functional properties of nerve impulses?
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1. The ability to respond to a stimulus 2. the ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons, muscles, or glands |
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What does it mean when the plasma membrane of an inactive neuron is polarized?
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Fewer positive ions sitting on the inner face than on it's outer face
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What is the major positive ions outside an inactive cell?
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Sodium
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What is the major positive ions inside an inactive cell?
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Potassium
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Sodium is in a much higher concentration outside the cell, the diffuses quickly into the neuron. What is this event called? |
Depolarization
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The local depolarization initiates and transmits a long-distance signal called _______.
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Action potential = Nerve Impulse
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Conducted over the entire length of the neuron, or it doesn’t happen at all.
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All-or-None responce
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Immediately after the sodium ions rush into the neuron, the membrane becomes impermeable to ___________ permeable to ____________.
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Sodium, Potassium
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This outflow of positive ions restores the electrical conditions to the resting (polarized) condition is called _______.
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Repolarization
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After repolarization the initial concentrations of the sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) ions inside and outside the neuron are restored by activation of the _________.
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Sodium-Potassium pump
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Why do fibers that have myelin sheaths conduct impulses faster?
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Nerve impulses jump from node to node.
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Why do sedatives and anaesthetics block nerve impulses by altering membrane permeability?
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No sodium entry = no action potential
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Why does cold/pressure impair impulse conduction?
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Interrupts blood circulation = no oxygen, nutrients to the nerve.
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How does the electrical impulse traveling along one neuron get across the synapse to the next neuron?
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A neurotransmitter (chemical) crosses the synapse (gap) to transmit the signal from one neuron to the next.
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The neurotransmitter binds to a _________ on the next neuron and sodium entry, etc. occurs.
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Receptor
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Most neurons communicate via chemical types of synapses, there are some examples of electrical types/neurons that are physically joined by ___________.
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Gap Junctions
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When neurons communicate at chemical synapses... the electrical changes opens ________channelsand ________ containing the neurotransmitter fuse with the axon membrane and release the transmitter. The neurotransmitter diffuse across the synapse to bind to receptors on the next neuron.
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Calcium, vesicles
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The whole series of events described before will occur: ion channels open, _________ entry, depolarization.
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Sodium
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Neurotransmitter is removed from the synapse – either by diffusion away, by reuptake into the axon terminal, or by ___________________= Ion channel closes.
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Enzymatic breakdown
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Affects the brain synapses in the control of the body movements, is linked to sensations of pleasure such as eating.
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Dopamine
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Regulates temperature and sensory perception; is involved in mood control.
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Seratonin
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Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that crosses a ______________ junction.
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Neuromuscular
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What would happen if this neurotransmitter stayed in synapses?
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The muscle would stay in a state of contraction or extension for long periods of time.
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5-HT is synthesized from _________. Precursor of the hormone __________. |
Tryptophan, melatonin
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Prevent serotonin from being taken back into the neurotransmitter for long periods of time. Allow the use of serotonin already in the cell.
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Serotonin-Reuptake Inhibiors
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Mucosal 5-HT is present in ________________ cells of the mucosal epithelium triggers peristaltic and secretory reflexes through the activation of enteric and sensory neurons.
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Entero-chromaffin
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Birds with a _____ central activity of 5-HTdisplayed higher levels of feather pecking than birds with high 5-HT activity.
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Low
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A ________ receives sensory input,which it sends to the brainfor processing, the brain analyzesthe information and determinesthe appropriate output.
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Receptor
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Reflexes are ________, __________, _____________ responses.
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Rapid, predictable, involuntary
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Pulling your finger away from a hot plate – skeletal muscles are activated = _________ reflex
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Somatic
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_________ reflexes include all the reflexes that regulate the skeletal muscles
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Somatic
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_____________ reflexes include all muscles that are not skeletal, including glands, heart, digestion, etc.
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Autonomatic
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Bright light – change in the size of the eye pupils = pupillary reflex an example of an __________ reflex (these regulate body functions = smooth muscles, glands, the heart)
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Autonomatic
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________ fiber is stimulated by the tendon hammer.
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Sensory
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Impulse travels via the sensory nerve to the ____________in the grey matter of the spinal cord.
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Ventral Horn
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It synapses with the ________ neuron which affects a muscular contraction.
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Motor
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The simple patellar reflex - Knee-jerk reflex is an example of a...
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Two Neuron Reflex
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When a limb is withdrawn from a painful stimuli; interneuron is involved; the more synapses the longer it takes. This is an example of a...
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Three Neuron Reflex
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Electronic feeding system has the potential to be used as ________________for pigs, being suitable for reducing aggressive behaviour.
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Cognitive Enrichment
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The formation of _____ by convolution of the cerebral cortex increases with brain size.
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Gyri
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_______: gray matter (unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies); cerebrums outer layer, localizes and interprets sensory inputs; control voluntary and skilled skeletal muscle activity; acts in intellectual and emotional processing
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Cortex
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_____________(ganglia): islands of gray matter, buried deep within the white matter of the cerebral hemispheres, subcortical motor centers help control skeletal muscle movements (problems with basal nuclei – are often unable to walk normally – Huntington/Parkinson’s disease in humans)
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Bosal Nuclei
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__________: relays sensory impulses to the cortex; relays impulses between the cortex and lower motor systems; involved in memory
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Thalamus
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_______________: integration of the autonomic system; regulates body temperature, food intake, water balance, thirst; regulates hormonal output=endocrine organ
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Hypothalamus
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_______________(functional system): includes cerebral and diencephalon structures; mediates emotional responses; memory processing
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Limbic System
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_________: contains visual and auditory reflex centers, subcortical motor centers, nuclei for cranial nerves
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Midbrain
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______ : cooperates with medulla to control respiration; relays info from cerebrum to cerebellum
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Pons
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_________________: relays ascending pathways from skin & proprioceptors; contains nuclei controlling heart & respiratory rate, vomiting, etc.
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Medulla Oblongata
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_______________ (functional system): maintains alertness; filters out repetitive stimuli; helps regulate skeletal and visceral muscle activity
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Reticular formation
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The Cerebellum is responsible for proper ________ and _________.
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balance, posture
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Touch and proprioceptive impulses are transmitted to the _________via large diameter fibres that run in the dorsal columns of the spinal cord and medial lemniscus in the brain
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Thalamus
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Temperature and pain – via small diameter fibres that run in the ______________tracts of the spinal cord and anterolateral paths in the brain.
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Spinothalamic
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_____________: the outermost layer – is a double layered membrane around the brain and single layered around the spinal cord.
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Dura mater
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_______________: the middle layer – it has web-like features.
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Arachnoid mater
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____________: the innermost membrane – it is delicate and clings tightly to the surface of the brain and spinal cord.
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Pia mater
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______________ is a watery liquid similar to blood plasma in its content. It forms a cushion around the brain and spinal cord and protects against physical blows and other trauma.It contains less ______ and more vitamin __ and a different ion composition.
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Cerebrospinal fluid, protein, C
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Neurons are kept separated from blood borne substances by the ______________.
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Blood-brain barrier
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Only ______, ________ and ___________________ pass easily through the blood-brain barrier.
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water, glucose, essential amino acids
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The blood-brain barrier is composed of the _______________capillaries in the whole body.
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least permiable
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In the 1860s, ____% of amputations on human patients were performed without anaesthesia/analgesia
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30
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Top 2 reasons provided for a lack of analgesics:
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Difficulties in recognizing pain and lack of knowledge about appropriate therapy. |
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Animals are routinely subjected to _________ procedures as a result of animal housing, for aesthetic reasons, for the owner’s benefit and for animal health concerns
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Painful
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An unpleasant ________ and __________ experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage
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Sensory, emotional
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Pain consists of 2 components: ____________, physical hurt or discomfort caused by injury or disease; and __________ suffering.
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Nociception, emotional
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We can see that we share __________ in ancestry, anatomy, physiology (nerve system, functioning cortex – or equivalent system) etc. and we respond in a similar way to similar situations.
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Similarities
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All vertebrates possess the primitive areas of the brain to process nociceptive information, namely the ________, thalamus, the limbic system and the _______.
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medulla, cortex
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Alarm system, so that action can be taken to avoid or minimize injury. This usually takes the form of a ___________ reflex.
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Withdawl
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This sensory capacity is termed ____________, a detection and reflex response to damage, to distinguish it from feeling pain.
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Nociception
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In the example of a ruptured abscess: _________ and __________ cause the pain.
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pressure, inflammation
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Specialized sensory receptors responsible for:the detection of extreme pressure or temperature, as well as certain chemicals that damage animal tissue, _________ stimuli, transforming the stimuli into electrical signals, which then travel to the _____. |
noxious (unpleasant), CNS
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__________________: Is caused by activation (mechanical, thermal, or chemical stimuli) of very small diameter free nerve endings - afferent Aδ and C fibres.
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Free nerve endings
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__________: When tissue is damaged, chemical substances are released that stimulate these fibers directly– inflammatory mediators.
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Mediators
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_____________ nociceptors respond to intense pressure.
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Mechanical
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___________ nociceptors respond to extreme hot or cold temperatures (>45°C or <5°C)
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Thermal
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________________ nociceptors respond to both thermal and mechanical stimuli.
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Mechano-thermal
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__________ nociceptors respond to noxious mechanical, thermal, and chemical stimuli and typically have small, unmyelinated C fibers that conduct impulses at a velocity of less than 3 m/s.
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Poloymodal
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________ nociceptors are activated by chemical stimuli (inflammatory mediators) and respond to mechanical and thermal stimuli only after they have been activated. These nociceptors also have small unmyelinated C fibers that conduct impulses at a velocity of less than 3 m/s.
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Silent
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_________ stimulate free nerve endings that project to the spinal cord via a cell body in the dorsal root
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Chemicals
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Activation of most cells by bradykinin is mediated by phospholipase __ and/or phospholipase ___.
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C, A2
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ATP (Adenosine- 5'-triphosphate) is an important source of _________________ where it is produced during cellular respiration and consumed by many cellular processes.
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Intracellular energy
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Since ATP is membrane impermeable, receptors for ATP located in the nociceptor plasma membrane are needed to detect the ATP released from damaged cells into the ___________________.
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Extracellular space
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___________ are released from immune cells such as macrophages and the pain they provoke accompanies inflammatory pain and cancer pain.
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Cytokines
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___________ and _____________ may be responsible for localised early pain that occurs when a site is injured.
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Acetylcholine, potassium ions
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____ has a particular role in pains that involve leaking of sarcoplasm from unexhausted muscle.
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ATP
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_____________ is released from plasma at the site of tissue injury and can be involved in trauma pain and inflammatory pain.
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Bradykinin
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____________ activates NMDA receptors in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and is responsible for spinally-mediated hyperalgesia.
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Glutamate
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__________ is released from mast cells and may be responsible for some forms of trauma pain
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Histamine
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_____________ is involved in delayed, relatively long-lasting hyperalgesia by causing proliferation of dendrites some of which possess nociceptors
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Nerve growth factor
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_________ accumulate in inflamed or ischaemic tissue and lead to activation of H+-gated cation channels in sensory neurones
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Protons
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____________ is released from platelets
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Serotonin
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Which fibre type has non-noxious sensory information?
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Aβ fibre
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Which fibre types have noxious sensory information?
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Aδ and C fibres
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Which fibre results in a light, non-painful touch sensation from stimuli?
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Aβ fibre
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Which fibre results in a fast, localized, pinprickling pain sensation from stimuli?
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Aδ fibre
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Which fibre results in a slow, dull, poorly localized pain sensation from stimuli?
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C fibre
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The gray matter of the spinal cord has two posterior projections called ___________ and two anterior projections called ______________.
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dorsal horns, ventral horns
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_____________ : cell bodies of sensory neurons, near, but outside, the spinal cord
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Dorsal root ganglion
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____________ : cell bodies of motor neurons of somatic (voluntary) nervous system
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Ventral horns
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The white matter of the spinal chord is composed of ___________________ - some running to the higher centers.
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myelinated fibre tracks
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The white matter of the spinal chord is divided into three regions on either side of the cord. What are they? |
Dorsal column: contains only ascending tracts (i.e. sensory/afferent input towards the brain) Lateral column: both ascending (sensory/afferent) and descending (motor/efferent – away from brain) tracts Ventral column: both ascending and descending (motor) tracts |
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____________ pathway: this tract terminates in the thalamus of the brain; important for pain localization
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Spinothalmic
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____________ pathway: these nerves enter the brain and the project through the medial lemniscus of the reticular formation into the thalamus; involved in emotional aspects of pain
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Spinoreticular
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In the spino-thalamic tract pain and temperature afferents enter through ____________ and penetrate the ____________ of the dorsal horn.
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Dorsal roots, gray matter
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Afferent neurons ascend in the contralateral spinothalamic tract to nuclei within the ____________. There are also projections to the ___________ (periaqueductal grey=PAG). Third order neurons ascend to terminate in the somatosensory cortex.
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Thalamus, midbrain
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Afferent neurons ascend in the contralateral spino-reticular tract to reach the ____________ reticular formationbefore projecting tothe ___________ and _____________. There are many furtherprojections to the cortex.
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Brainstem, thalamus, hypothalamus
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__________________ theorizes that painful stimuli can be molded by tough sensations.
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Gate control theory
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Head rubbing and head pressing are different in calves. ______________ is a normal affectionate behavior, while _____________ is the obvious effort to press the head against a stationary object. Rubbing is a gate to big ___________, blocks pain to smaller neurofibres.
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Head rubbing, head pressing, neurofibres
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Two important areas involved in descending inhibitory modulation:
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1.Midbrain - the periaqueductal grey 2.Medulla- rostral ventromedial medulla |
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Physiological pain response is confounded by the physiological & behavioural stress response to _______________ & ________________.
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tissue damage, handling stress
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___________: elevations in the heart rate ___________: elevations in the respiratory rate ___________: various changes in stress hormones (glucocorticoids, etc.) |
Cardiovascular, respiratory, endocrine
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Three main classes of behavioural changes are useful: 1.Pain specific behaviours 2.Decline in the ________ or _________ of certain behaviours 3.Choice or preference tests |
frequency, magnitude
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___________ (trippling forward onto the front legs) respond to application of hot-iron.
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Escape behaviour
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_____________________ –site of injury is manipulated/scrotum palpation following castration.
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Defensive behavior
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__________: A momentary involuntary muscular contraction. This usually occurs during inactive periods, when the rat is resting. It usually appears on the back of the rat, and is seen as a spasmodic movement of the fur.
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Twitching
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Visceral pain arises from ________________.
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Internal organs
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A ____________________ (MGS) was developed to determine facial expressions of pain accompanied by noxious stimuli of moderate duration.
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Mouse Grimace Scale
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Chickens were able to discriminate different coloured feeds, one of which contained an antibiotic in the _________________.
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Self medication test
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After abdominal surgery rearing and stretching movements might be painful therefore these movements will _________.
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Decline
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____________, ___________ and ______________ are serious problems in our human society and in animals kept in human managed systems.
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Aggression, violence, social stress
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Motivational changes act by way of altering the attention of the animal away from ______. These shifts in attention not only reduced pain but also significantly reduced peripheral inflammation.
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Pain
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What is an example of aggression? |
Aggression between sows after mixing. Inter-female aggression in breeding rabbits. Social aggression to unfamiliar dogs. |
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Aggression can be highly functional – as social communication aimed at active control of the social environment: ____________________, _____________, _____________________.
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Establishment of Territory, Social Dominance, Defense of Resources
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Adaptive control mechanisms develop to minimize and control physical aggression. Such mechanisms include: •_______________ behavior •Taboos •Ritualization •_______________ •Reconciliation •Appeasement |
Threatening, Submission
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__________ is a behavior that causes or leads to harm, damage or destruction of another organism.
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Aggression
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Aggression is most likely the ___________ to spacing between individuals.
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Sensitivity
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___________ aggression: unrelated to the other forms of aggression, attack response is triggered by the presence of a prey object within its visual field.
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Predatory
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_____________ aggression: aggression induced when an animal is prevented from escape and attacks another animal Dog aggression to humans is a serious problem and it appears that fear-induced aggression in dogs is often implicated. |
Fear induced
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___________ aggression: aggression of a mother when it perceives that its pups/chicks are threatened.
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Maternal
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____________ aggression: induced following the entry of an animal (intruder) into the domain deemed to be established by another animal (resident) = resident-intruder model
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Territorial
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___________ aggression: Induced when a male is paired with a male of the same species. It could be due to a variety of reasons (___________, ____________, ___________) |
Inter-male (territory, mating, dominance) |
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___________: an injurious form of offensive aggression that is out of control and out of context.
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Violence
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Violence differs both _____________ and _____________ from normal adaptive offensiveness.
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Quantitatively, qualitatively
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Violence may include ______, _______ at vulnerable body parts.
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bites, attacks
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The _____________ consists of the medulla oblongata, the pons and the midbrain (menseropahalon) &forms the connection between the spinal cord and the rest of the brain.
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Brain stem
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The ______________ is the functional group of integrating centres in cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus.
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Limbic System
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The limbic system is involved in ___________, __________, & ____________.
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Emotions, memory, learning
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Monoaminergic neurons: contain either ________, dopamine, _______________ or adrenalin.
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Serotonin, noradrenalin
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The medial hypothalamus is responsible for the ____________ response.
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Defense
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The lateral hypothalamus is responsible for the ____________ response.
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Predatory
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Reciprocal inhibitory connections between LH and MH utilize GABA as a neurotransmitter. The relationship allows either ____________ attack or ______________ rage to occur at a given time.
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Predatory, defensive
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__________ response requires planning and a strategy.
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Predatory
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Defensive response is __________ and lacks __________ involvement.
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Impulse, cortical
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___________ male rats will attack unfamiliar males that intrude in its home cage.
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Resident
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Increased levels of aggression are present in animals that have: •Abnormal ___________ systems •Higher brain __________ levels •Loss of ______ axons |
Cholinergic, dopamine, 5-HT
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Chemical regulation and communication uses _______ and ________ systems.
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Endocrine, nervous
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The endocrine system is more slowly acting and uses chemical messengers called __________.
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Hormones
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Major processes of the endocrine system control are: •_______________ •Growth and development •Maintaining electrolyte, water and nutrient balance of the blood •Regulating cellular metabolism and energy balance •Defenses against _________ |
Reproduction, stressors
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The most chronic and prolonged response to stress events are the result of the _______________.
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Endocrine axes
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Four main endocrine axes: 1.Adreno-cortical axis 2.____________ axis 3._________ axis 4.Posterior pituitary axis |
Somatotropic, Thyroid
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__________ are a substance that acts as a chemical signal; synthesized and secreted by endocrine _______, travel to parts of the body via circulatory system in blood, long distance chemical signalling – long lasting, regulate the metabolic activity of other cells in the body.
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Hormones, glands
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Hormones are classified chemicals as: •______________ molecules (includes proteins, peptides and amines) •__________ (made from cholesterol) •_________ (prostaglandins) |
Amino acid-based, steroids, lipids
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_________ hormones are local hormones that act only on the cells where they are secreted, also called prostaglandins.
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Lipid
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_______________ hormones circulate throughout the bodybut have action only on certain tissue cells or organs – target cells/organs.
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Blood borne
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Hormone interaction is very _________.
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Specific
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Steps of hormone action: •_________________________: hormone binds to specific receptor protein •_________________________ •___________: a change in cells behaviour |
Reception of signal, signal transduction, responce |
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Mechanisms of action: •Changes in plasma membrane permeability or electrical state •Activation or inactivation of enzymes •Synthesis of _______ or certain _______________________ in the cell •Stimulation of ________ •Promotion of secretory activity |
Proteins, regulatory molecules, mitosis
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Amino acid hormones are ________ soluble - do not pass through the phospholipid plasma membrane and bind to receptor protein on membrane. Case signal transduction pathway inside the cell. This is the ________________ system•E.g.: adrenalin, insulin, growth hormone, FSH, LH, etc
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Water, second messenger
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Example of second messenger system: Hormone (____________) binds to the membrane receptor.The activated receptor sets off a series of reactions – activates an enzyme.Enzyme catalyzes reactions that produce cAMP (____________). cAMP oversees additional intracellular changes that promote the typical response. |
1st messenger, 2nd messenger
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___________ hormones are small, lipid-soluble molecules made from cholesterol. they can pass through the plasma membraneand bind to receptors inside the cell. This is ____________ activation E.g.: sex hormones (testosterone, oestrogen, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids) |
Steroid, direct gene
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Direct gene activation is when _______ hormones diffuse through the plasma membrane, then enters the nucleus of the target cell binding to a specific hormone receptor to form a complex.The complex binds to specific sites on the cell’s DNA,activating certain genes to transcribe mRNA. mRNA is translated in the cytoplasm resulting in synthesis of new proteins.
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Steroid
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___________ stimuli is the most common stimulus.
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Hormone
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Hormones of the hypothalamus stimulate the pituitary; and hormones from the pituitary stimulate the adrenal cortex. As the final (target cell) hormones increase they “___________” to inhibit release of initial stimulating hormones
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Feed back
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Hormone stimuli changes blood levels of certain ______ and _________.
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Ions, nutrients
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___________ fibres stimulate hormone release.
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Nerve
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________ feedback loop - Some internal or external stimulus triggers hormone secretion.Leads to increase levels of hormones in the body.The rising levels inhibit further hormone release.
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Negative
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________ glands are __________, release hormones into the blood or lymph Ex. Hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, adrenal gland. |
Endocrine, ductless
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__________ glandshave ducts, release their products at the body’s surface or into body cavities E.g.:pancreas,gonads |
Exocrine
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The ____________ receives information from nerves and sends nervous and endocrine signals.
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Hypothalamus
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The hypothalamus uses the ____________ to relay directions (hormones) to other glands
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Pituitary gland
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Posterior pituitary – composed of ________ tissue Anterior pituitary – composed of _________ cells |
Nervous, endocrine
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The posterior pituitary acts as a _________ for hormones produced in the hypothalamus, then releases them into the _____________.
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Storage, blood stream
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___________ is released during parturition (birth) and lactation
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Oxytocin
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__________ hormone (ADH): inhibits or prevents urine volume production = blood volume increases
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Antiduirctic
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The anterior pituitary produces and releases six hormones in total: 1.Growth hormone 2._________ 3.ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) 4.TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) 5.FSH(_______________________________) 6.LH (luteinizing hormone) |
Prolactin, follicle stimulating hormone
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The ____________ glands are essentially two endocrine organs •Cortex (__________) •Medulla (________) The ____________ is central and is surrounded by the cortex. |
Adrenal, glandular, neural, medulla
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The __________________ consists of three layers of cells (from outermost towards the center): •Mineralocorticoid-secreting area •Glucocorticoid-secreting area •_____________ secreting area |
Adrenal cortex, sex hormone
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The Adrenal _________ developd from a knot of nervous tissue. Is stimulated by the __________ nervous systemand releases two hormones - ______________ 1.Epinephrine (adrenaline) 2.Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) |
Medulla, sympathetic, catecholamines
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What is responsible for “fight-or-flight” response? |
Adrenal Medulla
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The ___________ gland makes two hormones:1.Thyroid hormone (major metabolic hormone)2.Calcitonin(Ca2+ metabolism)
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Thyroid
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Thyroid hormones are: •___ – triiodothyronine •___ – thyroxine |
T3, T4
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_____________ stressors: •Back to school / Switching schools / New classmates / Exam •Giving a speech in front of an audience •Heavy workloads |
Phycological
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_________ stressors: •Extreme cold / Lack of shelter / Lack of food |
Biogenic
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_____________: •Kids playing on the playground (play behavior) |
Eustress
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Stress is a complex term referring to the _____________ and ____________ changes that occur in response to real or perceived threat to homeostasis – this is called ________.
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Psychological, physiological, allostasis
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When encountering an aversive stimulus that is interpreted as potentially harmful to the individual (a stressor), the body initiates a complex pattern of ____________, ___________, and ______________ activity (stress response).
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Endocrine, neural, immunological
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Allostasis affects many bodily functions including changes in: •Cardiovascular function •Respiration •_________ metabolism •Muscle tension •__________ |
Glucose, digestion
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Eustress is __________ stress and distress is ________ stress.
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Positive, negative
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_________is a positive form of stress that may be perceived as pleasurable
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Eustress
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Eustress can have similar physiological effects as distress including increased heart rate and elevated glucocorticoids; which in themselves are not ___________.
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Harmful
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Eustress is a ___________ response to demands. Ex. running during a play bout |
Positive
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Distress develops over a _______________ period of time
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Relatively long
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Acute distress can also occur in response to a short, intense stressor. Therefore, an animal may be in _________ even if it appears to recover rapidly after removal of the stressor or the conclusion of the procedure.
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Distress
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Situations that causes “stress” in an individualare: 1.______________ stressors 2.___________ stressors |
Psychosocial, biogenic
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Psychosocial stressors must work through ___________________ mechanics – cannot directly cause the stress response. They are real or imagined environmental events.
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Cognitive appraisal
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Biogenic stressors work directly on _________________________________ – no cognitive-affective processing Ex. caffeine, nicotine, pain, extreme heat and cold |
Neurological triggering nuclei
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Coping mechanisms/adaptive changes •____________ reactions •Activation of the ______________ nervous system and adrenal medulla •Secretion of stress hormones (i.e. glucocorticoids) •Mobilization of the ____________ system |
Behavioral, sympathetic, immune
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_______ & _________ depends on stressor.
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Duration, intensity
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________________ restraint – no marked problems in adaptation.
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Short-term
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________________ restraint – distress sometimes expressed by vocalization and gastric ulcers.
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Long-term
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What are the steps in motor output?
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1. Sensory input-Sensory receptor monitor the changes inside and outside the body2. Integration-Interprets the sensory input, decides what to do3. Output-Causes a response by activating muscles-skeletal system or glands via motor output
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What are the functions of the skeletal system?
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1. Support/framework-Supports body, cradles soft organs2. Protection-Protection for body's soft organs, e.g. skull protects brain3. Movement-Provides locomotion with muscles4. Storage-Fat is stored in internal cavities of bones, bone mainly stores calcium and phosphorus5. Production of blood cells-Occurs within marrow of certain bones
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According to shape and function, there are long, _____, flat, irregular bones that have bone marking (surface is not smooth). According to types of bone tissue, there are ______ bones, which are dense and look smooth, as well as _____ bones, which are needlelike and have lots of open space.
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short, compact, spongy
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What makes up most of the bone length, and is compact and covered by connective tissue?
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Diaphysis or shaft
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What makes up the end of the long bone, articular cartilage, and covers the external surface?
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Epiphysis
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What are the three types of joints?
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1. Fibrous-Collagen fibers, e.g. skull - no movement2. Cartilaginous joints-Slightly moveable, e.g. intervertebral joints of the spinal column3. Synovial joints-Freely moveable, articulating bone ends separated by a joint cavity containing synovial fluid
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The role of the muscular system is to produce ________, and maintain _______ and body position.
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movement, posture
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In order to produce locomotion, there must be collaboration between ______ and the ________ system to overcome friction and _______.
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muscles, skeletal, gravity
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Muscles interact with bones to produce ________.
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movement
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The skeletal system anchors skeletal _______ so that muscle contractions cause ________.
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muscles, movement
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Muscles are connected to bones by _______.
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tendons
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When one muscle is needed to pull the bone to which it is attached in one direction, and a different muscle is needed to reverse the reaction, this is called an ____________ ____.
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antagonistic pair
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All skeletal muscles _____ at least one joint. Typically, the bulk of a skeletal muscle lies ________ to the joint crossed.
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cross, proximal
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All skeletal muscles have at least two attachments - the ______ and the _________. Skeletal muscles can only ____, they never ____.
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origin, insertion, pull, push
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When a muscle is contracted, the insertion moves toward the ______.
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origin
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What is produced as a byproduct of muscle activity?
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Body heat
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Skeletal muscle comprises at least ___ of body mass, most responsible for generating heat.
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40%
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When you work hard, blood vessels ______ so you can release heat. When you are cold, they ______.
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expand, shrink
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Smooth muscles form ______ to regulate the passage of substances through internal body openings, ______ and _________ the pupils of our eyes, and activate the arrector pili muscles that cause our _____ to stand on end.
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valves, dilate, constrict, hairs
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What are the three types of muscle tissue? (characterized by location, cell shape, and appearance)
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1. Smooth muscle-Single, fusiform, muscle fibers2. Cardiac muscle-Branching chains of cells3. Skeletal muscle-Single, very long muscle fibers
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Skeletal muscles are _________ muscles, however, are often activated by reflexes. They are ________ muscles and contract _______, with great force, and as a result ____ rapidly and must rest.
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voluntary, striated, rapidly, tire
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A muscle fiber is a long, ___________ cell, with many nuclei of periphery. Most of the volume is __________ (organelles of bundles of overlapping thick filament and thin filament). The _________ is composed of contractile protein (actin and myosin).
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cylindrical, myofibrils, sacromere
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What happens when contractions occur in the muscles?
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Filaments more towards each other until they overlap
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What happens at the neuromuscular junction when a muscle fibre is stimulated and contraction occurs? (Long)
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-Action potential reaches axon terminal of motor neuron-Calcium channels open-Synaptic vesicle release acetylcholine-Acetylcholine diffuses across synaptic cleft and binds to receptors-Simultaneous passage of sodium ions into muscle fiber and potassium out of muscle fiber, producing local change in electrical conditions (depolarization)-Enzyme acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine in synaptic cleft-Process ends
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What happens in the sliding filament model when a muscle fibre is stimulated and contraction occurs? (Long)
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-Sarcomere contracts when thin filaments slide across thick filament -Thick filment - made of myosin -Thin filament - made of actin-Contraction shortens sarcomere without changing lengths of filaments-When muscle fully contracted, thin filaments overlap in middle of the sarcomere
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What happens concerning the contraction mechanism when a muscle fibre is stimulated and contraction occurs? (Long)
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-Myosin head has 2 binding sites, actin and ATP -Hydrolyze ATP for energy - powers contraction-Myosin head pivots back and forth in an arc, changing from high to low energy -Binds with actin, drags actin, releases -Returns to starting point -Repeats same motion with different actin
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What is muscle fatigue?
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The inability of the muscle to contract after a prolonged activity even if it is stimulated
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______ ____ builds up during anaerobic exercise.
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Lactic acid
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When hypocalcaemia occurs in a lactating animal (low calcium levels in blood serum), what happens to cows and dogs respectively?
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Cows: Paresis in ruminants, mediated by IV injections of a Calcium Gluconate saltDogs: Stiff gait, appears disoriented
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A ______ is the basic anatomical unit of the nervous system (smallest functional unit).
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neuron
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What does a resting potential mean?
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-Inside neuron negatively charged-Sodium ions outside, potassium inside
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What happens when there is a neuron transmission signal?
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-Depolarization occurs - sodium enters like a wave-Repolarization occurs - potassium gates enter
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Neural transmission begins at the ____________ membranes of the dendrites.
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postsynaptic
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When neural transmission occurs, chemical or electrical processes are initiated, which cause the neuron to conduct the incoming signal through the _________ and the ____ ____, down the axon, until it reaches the ___________ membranes.
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dendrites, cell body, presynaptic
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Neurotransmitters are the ___ to crossing the synaptic cleft.
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key
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Where are neurotransmitters present in the axon?
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In storage vesicles
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Once chemical compounds get the proper cues to migrate toward the presynaptic membrane, they are ultimately __________ into the synaptic _____ to stimulate (or _______) the postsynaptic membrane of the next ______.
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discharged, cleft, inhibit, neuron
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What are some examples of neurotransmitters?
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1. Noradrenalin/Norepinephrine - excitatory2. Serotonin - found in brain stem and limbic system, maintains mood3. Acetylcholine - neuromuscular junctions, preganglionic sympathetic and parasympathetic NS and postganglionic PSNS4. Gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) - major inhibitory neurotransmitter5. Dopamine - mesolimbic system
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What does the CNS consist of?
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Brain, spinal cord
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What are the two parts of the PNS?
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1. Somatic/motor nervous system2. Autonomic nervous system
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What is the autonomic nervous system subdivided into?
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1. Sympathetic nervous system - prepares body for action2. Parasympathetic nervous system - restorative function and relaxation of the body
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The stress response consists of a ________ event, cognitive ________ and integration, neurological __________, physiological ________, target organ and _________, and coping behaviour
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stressor, appraisal, triggering, response, activation
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Psychosocial stressors & biogenic stressors are examples of ________ ______.
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stressor events
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What is cognitive appraisal?
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-Refers to the process of cognitive interpretation i.e. the meanings that are assigned to the world as it unfolds
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What is affective integration?
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-Refers to the blending and colouring of felt emotion into the cognitive interpretation
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Anatomical epicenters are the _________ in the pons/part of the brainstem and the ______ system consisting of numeral neural structures: the hypothalamus, hippocampus, septum, cingulate gyrus and amygdala
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brainstem, limbic
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What are the physiological pathways?
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1. Neural axes-Stress response via neural innervation of target organs2. Neuroendocrine axis-Fight-or-flight response3. Endocrine axis-most chronic aspects of the stress response, greater intensity to activate
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What is the highest point of the fight-or-flight response?
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Amygdala
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When the fight-or-flight response occurs, there is a ________ flow of neural impulses to the ____________. This descends through the thoracic ______ ____, innervating the adrenal gland - more specifically the adrenal _______. This results in a hormonal output of catecholamines (noradrenalin, adrenalin).
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downward, hypothalamus, spinal cord, medulla
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The most chronic and prolonged response to stress events are the result of the _________ axes.
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endocrine
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The endocrine axes have four main axes.
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1. Adrenal cortical axis2. Somatotropic axis3. Thyroid axis4. Posterior pituitary axis
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In the adrenal cortical axis, the ____________ releases CRF, the ________ pituitary releases ACTH and endorphins, and the adrenal ______ releases Glucocorticoids and Mineralocorticoids.
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hypothalamus, anterior, cortex
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Effort without distress activates what response system?
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Sympathetic
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Distress without effort activates what response system?
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HDAC
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Effort with distress activates what response system?
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Sympathetic and HDAC
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In the somatotropic axis, the ____________ secretes SRF, the ________ pituitary releases growth hormone, and the _______ gland releases T3 and T4.
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hypothalamus, anterior, thyroid
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The posterior pituitary axis receives neural impulses from the __________ nuclei of the hypothalamus. This releases ADH, and oxytocin.
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supraoptic
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Good animal welfare is the absence of ____, fear, and hunger, it enables biological __________, it enables experience of positive _________ states, and it enables species-specific _________.
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pain, functioning, emotional, behaviour
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Poor animal welfare can occur _______ or over ______ term.
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briefly, longer
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What are some examples of poor animal welfare situations?
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Regrouping unfamiliar and familiar piglets, social isolation for some species, exposure to extremes of temperature, maternal deprivation, over crowding, failure to provide analgesics for pain, poor conditions during transport
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Assessment of distress is species, ______, and ___ specific behaviour.
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gender, age
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What are some clinical signs of distress in animals?
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-Appearance-Posture-Behaviour-Respiratory rate-Body weight-Temperature-Dehydration
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What are endocrinological parameters of assessing distress in animals?
|
1. Glucocorticosteroids - assessed in hair, feces, saliva, circadian rhythm crucial for collection of samples2. Prolactin and oxytocin - increased during stress3. Growth hormone and luteinizing hormone - also released in response to other stimuli
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____________ parameters and _____________ parameters are other means of assessing distress.
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neurological, immunological
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Useful indicators of stress include...
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-Animal's choice to continue or stop feeding while in a stressful situation-Demand studies that titrate the extent of the animal's attraction or aversion to a stressor-Elevated heart rate, blood pressure, glucose levels
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A stress response per se is a normal response to internal or environmental disturbance and is ________. Distress occurs when stress is ______ and/or _________. Stress and distress are distinguished by an animal's ability to ____ or _____ to changes in its environment and experience.
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adaptive, severe, prolonged, cope, adapt
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