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525 Cards in this Set

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What is Development?
the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues throughout the human life-span
What is the Life-Span Perspective?
views development as lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual, and as a process that involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss
What are the four types of age?
1. Chronological
2. Biological
3. Psychological
4. Social
Explain Chronological Age
number of years that have elapsed since birth
Explain Biological Age
person's age in terms of biological health
Explain Psychological Age
individuals adaptive capacities compared with those of other individuals of the same chronological age
Explain Social Age
connectedness with others and the social roles individuals adopt
What is the Nature vs Nurture issue?
debate about the extent to which development is influenced by nature and by nurture
Define Freud's Theory
states we go through five stages pf psychosexual development
Define Erikson's Theory
includes 8 stages of human development. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved
Define Piaget's Theory
States that children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through four stages of cognitive development
Define: Vygotsy's Theory
a sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development
Define Skinner's Theory
Through operant conditioning the consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior's recurrence
Define Bandura's Theory
People acquire a wide range of behaviors, thoughts, and feelings through observing others' behaviors and that these observations form an important part of life-span development
Define Genes
units of hereditary information in each chromosome; short segments of DNA
Define Genetic Expression Genotype
a person's genetic material
Define Phenotype
observable characteristics
Define Dominant Genes
a gene in one strand of DNA that is stronger than the corresponding gene in another strand of DNA
Define Recessive Genes
a gene in one strand of DNA that is weaker than the corresponding gene in another strand of DNA
Define Sex-linked genes
most mutated genes are recessive
What is the Dominant-and-recessive genes principle?
a dominant gene always exerts in its effects, overriding the potential influence of the recessive gene; a recessive gene only exerts influence if both genes in a pair are recessive
Name six prenatal diagnostic tests
1. ultrasound sonography
2. fetal MRI
3. Chorionic villus sampling
4. amniocentesis
5. Maternal Blood Screening
6. Noninvasive prenatal diagnosis
What is an ultrasound sonography?
noninvasive prenatal medical procedure in which high frequency sound waves are directed into the pregnant women's abdomen
When are ultrasound sonography usually done?
7 weeks into pregnancy
What is Chronic Villus Sampling?
prenatal medical procedure in which a tiny tissue sample from the placenta is removed and analyzed
When is Chronic Villus Sampling usually done?
between 10th and 12th weeks of pregnancy
What is Amniocentesis?
a sample of amniotic fluid is withdrawn with a syringe and tested for chromosome or metabolic disorders
When is Amniocentesis usually done?
between the 15th and 18 weeks of pregnancy
What is Maternal Blood Screening?
identifies pregnancies that have an elevated risk for birth defects such as spina bifida and Down Syndrome
When is Maternal Blood Screening usually done?
between the 16th to 18th week of pregnancy
What is a Fetal MRI?
uses a powerful magnet and radio images to generate detailed images to generate detailed images of the body's organs and structures
What is a Noninvasive Prenatal Diagnosis (NIPD)?
mainly focused on brain imaging techniques and the isolation and examination of fetal cells circulating in the mother's blood and analysis of cellfree fetal DNA in maternal plasma

basically, it determines whether a fetus has a genetic abnormality
What are the names of the three stages of pregnancy?
1. Germinal
2. Embryonic
3. Fetal
What is the length of time for the Germinal Stage?
period of prenatal development that takes place in the first two weeks after conception
What is the length of time for the Embryonic Stage?
period of prenatal development that occurs from 2 to 8 weeks after conception
What is the length of time for the Fetal Stage?
period of prenatal development that occurs from two months after conception to birth
What is a teratogen?
any agent that can potentially cause a birth defect or negatively alter cognitive and behavioral outcomes
Name 8 teratogens
1. drugs
2. incompatible blood tests
3. environmental pollutants
4. infectious diseases
5. nutritional deficiencies
6. maternal stress
7. advanced maternal and prenatal age
8. environmental pollutants
Examples of the teratogen: Drugs
antibiotics, some antidepressants, acne medicine, non prescription drugs
Examples of the teratogen: Incompatible Blood Types
the difference in the mother's and father's blood types could lead to miscarriage, stillbirth, anemia, jaundice, heart defects, brain damage, or death soon after birth
Examples of the teratogen: Environmental Hazards
Radiation, toxic waste and other environmental pollutants can endanger the embryo or fetus
Examples of the teratogen: Maternal Diseases
maternal diseases and infections can produce defects in offspring by crossing the placental barrier or they can cause damage during birth
Examples of the teratogen: Maternal Diet and Nutrition
a developing embryo or fetus depends completely on its mother for nutrition, which comes from the mother's blood
Examples of the teratogen: Maternal Age
when possible harmful effects on the fetus and infant are considered, two maternal ages are of special interest: adolescence and 35 years and older
Examples of the teratogen: Emotional States and Stress
When a pregnant women experiences intense fears, anxieties, negative mood states, psychological changes occur that may affect the fetus

high maternal stress during pregnancy can have long term consequences for offspring
Examples of the teratogen: Paternal Factors
fathers exposure to lead, radiation, certain pesticides, and petrochemicals may cause abnormalities in sperm that lead to miscarriage or disease such as childhood cancer
What occurs during the first stage of birth?
Basically, contractions->contractions worsen-> dilation of cervix

Uterine contractions are 15-20 minutes apart at the beginning (last up to one minute)
These contractions cause the woman's cervix to stretch and open
By the end of the first stage, contractions dilate the cervix to 10 cm so the baby can move through the birth canal

usually last about 6-12 hours for first child
What occurs during the second stage of birth?
Basically, the baby is born

baby's head starts to move through cervix and the birth canal.
Ends when the baby completely emerges from the mother's body
Mother continues to have contractions every minute and last about one minute (lasts approx. 45 minutes to one hour)
What occurs during the third stage of birth?
Afterbirth; the placenta, umbilical cord and other membranes are detached and expelled
What is the Apgar scale?
evaluates infants' heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, body color, and reflex irritability at one and five minutes after birth
What is a Low Birth Weight Infant?
infants weigh less than 5 pounds
What is a Pre-Term Infant?
infants are born three weeks or more before the pregnancy has reached its full term (less the 35 weeks after conception)
What is a Small for Date Infant?
infants who have a birth weight below normal when the length of pregnancy is considered (may be Pre-Term or Full-Term)

They weigh less that 90% of all babies of the same gestational age
What does SIDS stand for?
Sudden Infant Death Syndrom
What is SIDS?
condition that occurs when an infant stops breathing, usually during the night, and dies suddenly without an apparent cause
What are risk factors for SIDS?
1. Infants must sleep on back
2. More likely to occur in low birth weight infants, African American and Eskimo infants
3. Infants who are passively exposed to cigarette smoke
4. When infants and parents share the same bed
5. When infants don't use a pacifier when they go to sleep
6. When they sleep in a room without a fan
What are benefits of breast feeding for the mother?
1. Lower incidence of breast cancer
2. Reduction in Ovarian Cancer
What is the Rooting Reflex?
reflex that occurs when the infant's cheek is stroked or the side of the mouth is touched causing the infant to turn its head toward the side that was touched in an apparent effort to find something to suck
What is the Sucking Reflex?
reflex that occurs when newborns automatically such an object placed in their mouth causing the baby to start sucking
What is the Moro Reflex?
reflex that occurs in response to a sudden intense movement or noise causing the baby to be startled, arches back, throws head back, flings out arms and legs and then rapidly closes them to center of body
What is a Pincer Grasp?
picks objects up using index finger and thumb
What is a Palmar Grasp?
picks up objects involving palm
What are Year One Developmental Milestones?
walks using furniture for support, stand with support, pull self to stand, sit without support
What are Year Two Developmental Milestones?
Stand alone easily, walk alone easily
Who is Fantz?
a pioneer who concluded infants look at different things for different lengths of time
What did Chomsky propose?
Humans are biologically "pre-wired" to learn language at a certain time and in a certain way
What is a Language Acquisition Device (LAD)?
biological endowment that enables the child to detect the various features and rules of language
What is the Language Milestone at age: birth
crying
What is the Language Milestone at age: 2 to 4 months
cooing begins
What is the Language Milestone at age: 5 months
understands first words
What is the Language Milestone at age: 6 months
babbling begins
What is the Language Milestone at age: 7 to 11 months
change from universal linguist to language specific listener
What is the Language Milestone at age: 8 to 12 months
uses gestures, such as showing and pointing
comprehension of words
What is the Language Milestone at age: 13 months
first word spoken
What is the Language Milestone at age: 18 months
vocabulary spurt begins
What is the Language Milestone at age: 18 to 24 months
Uses two-word utterances
Rapid extension of understanding of words
According to Piaget, what are schemes?
created by the developing brain as a result of an infant or child seeking to construct an understanding of the world
What is Assimilation?
occurs when children use their existing schemes to deal with new information or experiences
What is Accommodation?
occurs when children adjust their schemes to account for new information and experiences
What is Object Permanence?
term for understanding that objects and events continue to exist, even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched
What is the Sensorimotor Stage?
during this time infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motoric actions
How long does the Sensorimotor Stage last?
lasts from birth to age 2
What is Temperament?
Individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding emotionally
Who are the three psychiatrists that classified temperament?
Chess & Thomas, Kagan, Rothbart and Bates
What three basic types, or clusters, of temperament did Chess and Thomas identify Temperament as?
Easy Child, Difficult Child, and Slow-to-warm-up child
What is an Easy Child?
child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and adapts easily to new experiences
What is a Difficult Child?
child reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change
What is a Slow-to-warm-up child?
child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood
What was Kagan's approach to Temperament?
regards shyness with strangers (peers or adults) as one feature of a broad temperament category called inhibition to the unfamiliar
What is Inhibition to the Unfamiliar?
Children react to many aspects of unfamiliarity with initial avoidance, distress, or subdued affect
What was Rothbart and Bates approach to Temperament?
stress effortful control (self-regulation)
Infants who are_______ in effortful control show an ability to keep their arousal from getting too intense and have strategies for soothing themselves
high
Infants who are_______ in effortful control are often unable to control their arousal; they are easily agitated and become intensely emotional
low
What are the first two stages of Erikson's theory during the age of birth up through 24 months?
Trust versus Mistrust and Autonomy versus shame & doubt
How do infants (birth through 24 months) demonstrate a sense of self?
Self Recognition
What is Attachment?
close emotional bond between two people
What was the purpose of Harry Harlow's study?
to determine whether the mother provided comfort seemed to determine whether the monkeys associated that mother with security
What was the result of Harry Harlow's study?
it clearly demonstrated that feeding is not the crucial element in the attachment process and that contact comfort is important
Who was Mary Ainsworth?
a women who created the Strange Situation
What is the Strange Situation?
an observational measure of infant attachment in which the infant experiences a series of introductions, separations, and reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in a prescribed order
Based on how babies respond in the Strange Situation, how are they described?
Securely attached or insecurely attached
What are the three types of Insecurely attached babies?
Insecure avoidant babies, insecure resistant babies, insecure disorganized babies
What is an Insecure Avoidant Baby?
babies that show insecurity by avoiding their mothers
What is an Insecure Resistant Baby?
babies that often cling to their caregiver, then resist her by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away
What is an Insecure Disorganized Baby?
babies that show insecurity by being disorganized and disoriented
What is a Securely Attached Baby?
babies that use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore their environment
Basically, what is the Strange Situation Test?
a test that investigates how attachments might vary between children
What do researchers hope will be their result of the Strange Situation?
to provide information about the infant's motivation to be near the caregiver and the degree to which the caregiver's presence provides the infant with security and confidence
As explained by Ainsworth, what is the relationship between securely attached infant with their caregiver?
infant responds positively to being picked up by others and when put down, freely moves away to play
As explained by Ainsworth, what is the relationship between insecurely attached infant with their caregiver?
infant avoids the caregiver or is ambivalent towards her, fears strangers, and is upset by minor, everyday separations
What are the main causes of death/ serious illness of children?
accidents, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases
What is the second stage of Piaget's theory?
The preoperational Stage
How long does the preoperational stage last?
from 2 to 7 years of age
What is the Preoperational Stage?
children begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings. they form stable concepts and begin to reason. their cognitive world is dominated by egocentrism and magical beliefs
What is Egocentrism?
the inability to distinguish between one's perspective and someone else's perspective
What is Animism?
the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action
What is Conservation?
awareness that altering an object's or a substance's appearance does not change its basic properties
According to Vygotsky, what is ZPD?
range of tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone but can be mastered with assistance
According to Vygotsky, what is Scaffolding?
changing the level of support
What is Project Head Start?
a government funded program that is designed to provide children from low-income families the opportunity to acquire the skills and experiences important for school success
In order to experience self conscious emotions, what do children have to be able to do?
refer to themselves and be aware of themselves as distinct from others
What are examples of self conscious emotions?
pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt
What is Gender Identity?
the sense of being male or female
When do most children acquire gender identity?
by the time they are 3 years old
What are gender roles?
sets of expectations that prescribe how females or males should think, act, and feel
What is Gender Schema Theory?
theory that gender typing emerges as children develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropraite and gender-inappropriate in their culture
What fuels gender typing?
gender schemas
According to Baumrind, what are the four parenting types?
1. authoritarian
2. authoritative
3. neglectful
4. indulgent
What is Authoritarian Parenting?
a restrictive, punitive style in which parents exhort the child to follow their directions and respect their work and effort, they allow little verbal exchange
Typically, how are children of authoritarian parents?
unhappy, fearful, and anxious about comparing themselves with others; they fail to initiate activity and have weak communication skills
What is Authoritative Parenting?
parents encourage children to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions; extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed, and parents are warm and nurturant towards child
Typically, how are children of authoritative parents?
cheerful, self-controlled and self-reliant, and achievement oriented; they tend to maintain friendly relations with peers, cooperate with adults, and cope well with stress
What is Neglectful Parenting?
style in which the parent is uninvolved in the child's life
Typically, how are children of neglectful parents?
socially incompetent, poor self-control, and don't handle independence well, low self-esteem, immature, and may be alienated from the family
What are the four types of maltreatment?
1. physical abuse
2. child neglect
3. sexual abuse
4. emotional abuse
What is Physical Abuse?
infliction of physical injury as a result of punching, beating, kicking, biting, burning, shaking, or otherwise harming a child
What is Child Neglect?
failure to provide for the child's basic needs
What type of neglect is there?
physical, emotional, or educational
What is the most common form of child mistreatment?
child neglect
What is Sexual Abuse?
fondling of genitals, intercourse, incest, rape, sodomy, exhibitionism, and commercial exploitation through prostitution or production of porn
What is Emotional Abuse?
includes acts or omissions by parents or caregivers that have caused or could cause, serious behavioral, cognitive, or emotional problems
What is the second most common cause of death?
cancer
What percentage of children in the United States receive Special Education?
14%
What is the definition of Learning Disability?
describes a child who has difficulty understanding or using spoken or written language or doing mathematics
What percentage of children have a Learning disorder?
4.9%
What does ADHD stand for?
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
What is the definition of ADHD?
disability in which children are characterized as inattentive, hyperactive, and impulsive
What are the causes of ADHD?
inherited by parents, brain damage during prenatal or postnatal development, cigarette and alcohol exposure during prenatal development, and low birth weight, later peak for cerebral cortex thickening
What are treatments for ADHD?
stimulant medication (Ritalin or Adderall) is helpful, combination of medication and CBT
What is the percentage of children that are diagnosed with ADHD?
1/20 or 5% in United States
What does IEP stand for?
individualized education plan
What is an IEP?
written statement that spells out a program that is specifically tailored for a student with a disability
What does LRE stand for?
Least Restrictive Environment
What is an LRE?
setting that is as similar as possible to the one in which children who do not have a disbility are educated
What is inclusion?
describes educating a child with special education needs full-time in the regular classroom
What is Intelligence?
problem-solving skills and the ability to learn from, and adapt to, the experiences of everyday life
What is Mental Age?
Binet's measure of an individuals level of mental development, compared with that of others
What is Intelligence Quotient?
a persons mental age is divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100
What is the formula for ratio IQ?
IQ= MA (mental age) / CA (chronological age) * 100
If mental age is the same as chronological age, what is the person's IQ?
100
If mental age is above their chronological age, what is the person's IQ?
more than 100
If mental age is below their chronological age, what is the person's IQ?
less than 100
What is Sternberg's Triarchic Theory?
states that intelligence comes in three forms: analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence
What is Analytical Intelligence?
refers to the ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare and contrast
What is Creative Intelligence?
consists of the ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine
What is Practical Intelligence?
involves the ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice
If children are considered "smart" and do well on the SAT, what type of intelligence are they higher in?
analytic
If a child is not in the top of the class, gives unique answers and do not conform to a teachers expectations, what type of intelligence are they higher in?
creative
If a child does well outside of school, has great social skills, and good common sense, what type of intelligence are they higher in?
practical
What did Howard Gardner suggest about intelligence?
there are 8 types of intelligence or "frames of mind"
According to Gardner, what are the 8 types of Intelligence?
verbal, mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist
According to Gardner, what is meant by verbal intelligence?
the ability to think in words and use language to express meaning
What type of occupation would a person with high verbal intelligence pursue?
authors, journalists, speakers
According to Gardner, what is meant by mathematical intelligence?
the ability to carry out mathematical operations
What type of occupation would a person with high mathematical intelligence pursue?
scientists, engineers, accountants
According to Gardner, what is meant by spatial intelligence?
the ability to think three-dimensionally
What type of occupation would a person with high spatial intelligence pursue?
architects, artists, sailors
According to Gardner, what is meant by bodily-kinesthetic intelligence?
the ability to manipulate objects and be physically adept
What type of occupation would a person with high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence pursue?
surgeons, craftspeople, dancers, athletes
According to Gardner, what is meant by musical intelligence?
a sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone
What type of occupation would a person with high musical intelligence pursue?
composers, musicians, and sensitive listeners
According to Gardner, what is meant by interpersonal intelligence?
the ability to understand and interact effectively with others
What type of occupation would a person with high interpersonal intelligence pursue?
successful teachers, mental health professionals
According to Gardner, what is meant by intrapersonal intelligence?
the ability to understand oneself
What type of occupation would a person with high intrapersonal intelligence pursue?
theologians, psychologists
According to Gardner, what is meant by naturalist intelligence?
the ability to observe patterns in nature and understand natural and human-made systems
What type of occupation would a person with high naturalist intelligence pursue?
farmers, botanists, ecologists, landscapers
What is an Intellectual Disability?
condition of limited mental ability in which an individual has a low IQ, usually below 70 on a traditional intelligence test, and has difficulty adapting to everyday life
Approximately, how many Americans fit the definition of intellectual disability?
5 million
What are the four classification of Intellectual Disability?
Mild, moderate, severe, profound
What is the typical IQ of an individual that falls into the mild category?
55 to 70
What are individuals in the mild category able to do?
able to live independently as adults, and work at a variety of jobs
What is the typical IQ of an individual that falls into the moderate category?
40 to 54
What are individuals in the moderate category able to do?
attain a second-grade level of skills and may be able to support themselves as adults through some types of labor
What is the typical IQ of an individual that falls into the severe category?
25 to 39
What are individuals in the severe category able to do?
learn to talk and accomplish very simple tasks but require extensive supervision
What is the typical IQ of an individual that falls into the profound category?
below 25
What are individuals in the profound category able to do?
need constant supervision
What percentage of individuals fall into the mild category?
89%
What percentage of individuals fall into the moderate category?
6%
What percentage of individuals fall into the severe category?
3.5%
What percentage of individuals fall into the profound category?
less than 1%
What is Deviation IQ?
intelligence quotient determined by comparing a person's test score with other examinees of the same age
Why was the Deviation IQ developed?
the ratio method was inadequate for adults
What is a normal distribution?
symmetrical distribution with most scores falling in the middle of the possible range of scores and a few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range
Under the normal curve, What is the percentage of people who have an IQ score of 55-70?
2.14%
What are people considered when they have an IQ score of 55-70?
intellectual disability
Under the normal curve, What is the percentage of people who have an IQ score of 70-85?
13.59%
What are people considered when they have an IQ score of 70-85?
intellectual disability
Under the normal curve, What is the percentage of people who have an IQ score of 85-100?
34.13%
What are people considered when they have an IQ score of 85-100?
normal
Under the normal curve, What is the percentage of people who have an IQ score of 100-115?
34.13%
What are people considered when they have an IQ score of 85-100?
normal
Under the normal curve, What is the percentage of people who have an IQ score of 115-130?
13.59%
What are people considered when they have an IQ score of 115-130?
gifted
Under the normal curve, What is the percentage of people who have an IQ score of 130-145?
2.14%
What are people considered when they have an IQ score of 130-145?
gifted
How many individuals have an IQ of more than 130?
about 1 in 50 individuals
How many individuals have an IQ of less that 70?
about 1 in 50 individuals
What is the mean IQ?
100
What is a gifted individuals IQ?
130 or higher
What is Self Concept
domain-specific evaluations of the self
What is Self-Esteem?
the global evaluative dimension of the self
What else is Self Esteem referred to as?
self-worth or self-image
What is Self-Regulation?
the ability to act in your long-term best interest, consistent with your deepest values.
What is Self-Efficacy?
the belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes
What is Erik Erikson's Fourth Stage of Human Development?
Industry vs. Inferiority
When does Industry vs. Inferiority occur?
middle and late childhood
According to Erikson, what is Industry?
children become interested in how things are made and how they work
According to Erikson, what is Inferiority?
parents who see their children's efforts at making things as "mischief" or "making a mess"
What are the 6 developmental changes in emotions that occur during the middle and late childhood years?
improved emotional understanding, increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a particular situation, increased tendency to be aware of the events leading to emotional reactions, ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions, use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings, and a capacity for genuine empathy
What is meant by "improved emotional understanding?"
children learn complex emotions including pride and shame
What is an example of "increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a particular situation?"
a third grader may realize that achieving something that might involve anxiety and joy
What is an example of "increased tendency to be aware of the events leading to emotional reactions?"
a fourth grader may become aware that her sadness is influenced by her friend moving to another town last week
What is an example of "ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions?"
a fifth grader has learned to tone down his anger better than he used to when one of his classmates irritated him
What is an example of "use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings?"
children become more reflective about their emotional lives and increasingly use strategies to control their emotions
What is an example of "capacity for genuine empathy?"
a fourth grader- feels sympathy for a distressed person and experiences vicariously the sadness the distressed person is feeling
What is Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development?
development from one stage to another is fostered by opportunities to take the perspective of others and to experience conflict between one's current stage of moral thinking and the reasoning of someone at a higher stage
What did Kohlberg propose?
six stages of moral development which he believed are universal
According to Kohlberg, what are the three levels of moral thinking?
pre-conventional level, conventional level, and post-conventional level
What is Pre-Conventional Reasoning?
lowest level of moral reasoning in Kohlbergs theory of moral development
What two stages is the Pre-Conventional Level characterized by?
Heteronomous Morality
and
Individualism, Instrumental purpose, and Exchange
At the Pre-Conventional Level, what are children able to do?
interpret good and bad in terms of external rewards and punishments
What is Heteronomous Morality?
first stage in Pre-Conventional reasoning
What occurs at the Heteronomous Morality stage?
moral thinking is tied to punishment
What is an example of a child in the Heteronomous Morality stage?
children think that they must obey because they fear punishment for disobedience
What is Individualism, Instrumental Purpose, and Exchange?
second stage of pre-conventional reasoning
What occurs at the Individualism, Instrumental Purpose, and Exchange stage?
children reason that pursuing their own interests is the right thing to do, but they let others do the same
What is an example of a child in the Individualism, Instrumental Purpose, and Exchange Stage?
children think that what is right involves an equal exchange; reason that if they are nice to others, others will be nice to them in return
What is Conventional Reasoning?
second, or intermediate, level in Kohlberg's theory of moral development
What two stages is the Conventional Level characterized by?
Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity
and
Social Systems Morality
At the Conventional Level, what are children able to do?
individuals apply certain standards, but they are the standards set by others, such as the government or parents
What is Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity?
Kohlberg's third stage of moral development
What occurs at the Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity stage?
individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to others as a basis of moral judgements
What is an example of a child in the Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity stage?
children often adopt their parents' moral standards at this stage, seeking parental approval as a "good girl" or "good boy"
What is Social Systems Morality?
Kohlberg's fourth stage of moral development
What occurs at the Social Systems Morality stage?
moral judgements are based on understanding the social order, law, justice, and duty
What is an example of a child in the Social Systems Morality Stage?
adolescents may reason that in order for a community to work effectively, it needs to be protected by laws that community members obey
What is Post-Conventional Reasoning?
highest level in Kohlberg's theory of moral development
What two stages is the Post-Conventional Stage characterized by?
Social Contact or Utility and Individual Rights
and
Universal Ethical Principles
At the Post-Conventional Level, what are children able to do?
individual recognizes alternative moral cures, explores the options and then decides on a personal moral code
What is Social Contact or Utility and Individual Rights?
Kohlberg's fifth stage of moral development
What occurs at the Social Contact or Utility and Individual Rights Stage?
individuals reason that values, rights, and principles undergird or transcend the law
What is an example of an individual in the Social Contact or Utility and Individual Rights Stage?
a person evaluates the validity of actual laws and may examine social systems in terms of the degree to which they preserve and protect fundamental human rights and values
What is Universal Ethical Principles?
Kohlberg's sixth, and highest, stage of moral development
What occurs at the Universal Ethical Principles Stage?
the person has developed a moral standard based on universal human rights
What is an example of a child in the Universal Ethical Principles Stage?
when faced with a conflict between law and conscience, the person reasons that conscience should be followed
What age are most individuals who use Pre-conventional Reasoning?
before age 9
What age are most individuals who use Conventional Reasoning?
early adolescence
What age are most individuals who use Post-conventional Reasoning?
if they do, it is early adulthood
What are gender stereotypes?
broad categories that reflect our impressions and beliefs about females and males
What are basic physical differences in males and females at this age?
women have about twice the body fat of men, men grow to be 10% taller than females
What are basic cognitive differences in males and females at this age?
female brains are smaller than males, females are more emotional
What are basic cognitive differences in males and females at this age?
females have better verbal skills
What are basic socio-emotional differences in males and females at this age?
males are more physically aggressive, females are more verbally aggressive
Do males or females engage in more prosocial behavior?
females
What is the greatest gender difference in prosocial behavior?
females have more kind and considerate behavior
What is Androgyny?
the presence of positive masculine and feminine characteristics in the same individuals
What are the five peer statuses?
popular, average, neglected, rejected, and controversial
What is a Popular Child?
frequently nominated as a best friend and rarely disliked by peers
What is an Average Child?
receive an average number of both positive and negative nominations from their peers
What is a Neglected Child?
infrequently nominated as a best friend but are not disliked by their peers
What is a Rejected Child?
infrequently nominated as someone's best friend and are actively disliked by their peers
What is a Controversial Child?
child who is frequently nominated as someone's best friend and as being disliked
What are the outcomes for Rejected Children?
more impulsive and have problems paying attention, more emotionally retractive, and fewer social skills
What is Bullying?
verbal or physical behavior intended to disturb someone less powerful
What are the five types of bullying?
belittled about religion or race, belittled about looks or speech, hit, slapped. or pushed, subject of rumors, and subject of sexual comments or gestures
Are boys or girls more likely to be belittled about religion or race?
boys
Are boys or girls more likely to be belittled about looks or speech?
girls
Are boys or girls more likely to be hit, slapped. or pushed?
boys
Are boys or girls more likely to be the subject of rumors?
girls
Are boys or girls more likely to be the subject of sexual comments or gestures?
girls
Approximately, how many students in grades 6 through 10 have experienced bullying?
15,000 or one in three students
What are the six functions of friends?
companionship, stimulation, physical support, ego support, social comparison, and affection and intimacy
What is meant by the function of companionship?
friendship provides children with a familiar partner and playmate, someone who is willing to spend time with them and join in collaborative activities
What is meant by the function of stimulation?
friendship provides children with interesting information, excitement, and amusement
What is meant by the function of Physical support?
friendship provides time, resources, and assistance
What is meant by the function of Ego Support?
friendship provides the expectation of support, encouragement, and feedback, which helps children maintain an impression of themselves as competent, attractive, and worthwhile individuals
What is meant by the function of Social Comparison?
friendship provides information about where the child stands vis-a-vis others and whether the child is doing okay
What is meant by the function of Affection and Intimacy?
friendship provides children with a warm, close, trusting relationship with another individual
What other role does friendship play in a child's success?
emotional well-being and academic success
What is Puberty?
period of rapid physical maturation involving hormonal and bodily changes
When does Puberty primarily occur?
early adolescence
What is the sequence of physical changes in males?
increase in penis and testicle size, appearance of straight pubic hair, minor voice change, first ejaculation, appearance of kinky pubic hair, onset of maximum growth in heigh and weight, growth of hair in armpits, more detectable voice changes, and facial hair growth
What is the sequence of physical changes in females?
breasts enlarge or pubic hair appears, armpit hair, grows in height, hips become wider than her shoulders
What is the Endocrine systems role in puberty?
it involves the interaction of the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the gonads
What is the Hypothalamus?
structure in the brain that monitors eating and sex
What are hormones?
powerful chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands and carried through the body by the bloodstream
What is the typical age of puberty for males and the range of age?
begin from 10 to 13 and a half and may end from 13 to 17
What is the typical age of puberty for females and the range of age?
9 to 15 years old
Is it an advantage if a boy matures earlier than others?
yes
What is an advantage to a male maturing early?
perceive themselves more positvely
If a male matures later, when do they begin to perceive themselves more positively?
in their thirties
Is it an advantage if a girl matures earlier than others?
no
What is a disadvantage to a girl maturing early?
increases girls' vulnerability to a number of problems and less likely to graduate from high school
Typically, what problems are more likely to occur to an early-maturing girl?
smoke, drink, become depressed, have an eating disorder, struggle for their independence from parents, and have older friends
During Adolescence, what are the three leading causes of death?
accidents, homicide, and suicide
What is the cause of almost half of all deaths occurring from 15 to 24 years old?
unintentional injuries
What is the rate of adolescent drug use in the United States?
higher than an industrialized mation
What is early onset drinking linked to?
increased risk of heavy drinking in middle age
What was the cause of alcohol use before 11 years old?
linked to higher risk for alcohol dependence in early adulthood
Who plays an important role in preventing adolescent drug abuse?
parents
What type of parenting is linked to lower adolescent alcohol consumption?
authoritative
Along with parents, who else plays a very important role in adolescent substance abuse?
peers
What is a strong buffer for the emergence of drug problems in adolescence?
educational success
What are two main eating disorders?
anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa
What is Anorexia Nervosa?
eating disorder that involves the relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation
What are the four main characteristics that apply to people suffering from Anorexia Nervosa?
1. weight less than 85% of what is considered normal for their age and height
2. intense fear of gaining weight that does not decrease with weight loss
3. distorted image of their body shape
4. amenorrhea in girls who have reached puberty
What is Amenorrhea?
lack of menstration
What is linked to Anorexia Nervosa?
obsessive thinking about weight and compulsive exercise
When does Anorexia Nervosa typically begin?
early to middle adolescent years
In comparison to females, are symptoms for Anorexia nervosa similar or different for males
similar
What is the predominant race that has anorexia?
non-latina white adolescent or young adult females from well-educated, middle and upper-income families and are competitive and high achieving
What two factors are involved in Anorexia Nervosa?
biology and culture
What plays an important role in anorexia nervosa?
genes
What is the most effective treatment of adolescent girls dealing with Anorexia Nervosa?
family therapy
How much more likely is Anorexia to occur in females than males?
10 times
What is Bulimia Nervosa?
eating disorder in which the individual consistently follows a binge-and-purge pattern
What do individuals with Bulimia do?
go on an eating binge and the purge by self-inducing vomiting or using a laxative
When is an individual considered to have a serious bulimic disorder?
if the episodes occur at least twice a week for three months
What are the four main characteristics that apply to people suffering from Bulimia Nervosa?
1. preoccupied with food
2. strong fear of becoming overweight
3. depressed or anxious
4. distorted body image
What does the overvaluation of their body and weight linked to?
higher depression and lower self-esteem
Where do Bulimic individuals fall on weight range?
normal
What percentage of US women are estimated to develop Bulimia?
1% to 2%
What percentage of Bulimic individuals are women?
90%
When does Bulimia Nervosa typically begin?
late adolescence or early adulthood
What is the most effective treatment of adolescent girls dealing with Bulimia Nervosa?
drug therapy and psychotherapy
According to Piaget, what stage of cognitive development are adolescents in?
Formal Operational Stage
What age does the Formal Operational Stage begin?
around age 11
What is the Formal Operational Stage?
fourth and final stage of cognitive development
What are the five main characteristics of the Formal Operational Stage?
1. more abstract than concrete operational thought
2. increased verbal problem-solving ability
3. increased tendency to think about thought itself
4. thoughts of idealism and possibilities
5. more logical thought
What is Adolescent Egocentrism?
heightened self-consciousness of adolescents
According to David Elkind, what two components does adolescent egocentrism have?
the imaginary audience and personal fable
What is Imaginary Audience?
adolescents' belief that others are as interested in them as they themselves are and attention getting behavior
What is an example of imaginary audience?
an 8th grade boy walks into a classroom thinking that all eyes are on him
What do adolescents believe during early adolescence?
they are "on-stage," they believe they are the main actors and all others are the audience
According to Elkind, what is Personal Fable?
involves a sense of uniqueness and invincibility
How does an adolescents sense of personal uniqueness make them feel?
that no one can understand how they really feel
What do adolescents do in order to retain a sense of personal uniqueness?
craft a story about the self that is filled with fantasy, immersing themselves in a world that is far removed from reality
What does an individuals sense of invincibility lead to?
believe they are invulnerable to dangers and catastrophes
According to Erikson's theory what is the fifth developmental stage?
identity vs identity confusion
What happens during the "identity vs identity confusion" stage?
adolescents are faced with deciding who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life
What is the search for an identity during adolescence aided by?
psychosocial moratorium
According to Erikson, what is Psychosocial Moratorium?
gap between childhood security and adult autonomy
What happens during the Psychosocial Moratorium period?
society leaves adolescents relatively free of responsibilities and able to try out different identities
Who is Marcia?
an Eriksonian researcher
What did Marcia believe?
Erikson's theory of identity development encompasses four statues of identity, or ways of resolving the identity crisis
According to Marcia, what are the four statuses of identity?
identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, and identity achievment
According to Marcia, what determines an individuals identity status?
individuals are classified based on the existence or extent of their crisis or commitment
According to Marcia, what is Crisis?
defined as a period of identity development during which the individual is exploring alternatives
According to Marcia, What is Commitment?
part of identity development in which adolescents show a personal investment in forming an identity
According to Marcia, what is Identity Diffusion?
adolescents who have not yet experienced a crisis or made any commitments
According to Marcia, what is Identity Foreclosure?
adolescents who have made a commitment but have not experienced a crisis
According to Marcia, what is Identity Moratorium?
adolescents who are in the midst of crisis, but their commitments are either absent or vaguely defined
According to Marcia, what is Identity Achievement?
adolescents who have undergone a crisis and have made a commitment
What is the concept of the new model of parent-adolescent relationship?
attachment and autonomy;parents are important support systems and attachment figures.
moderate parent-adolescent conflict is common and can serve a positive developmental function
What is meant by attachment and autonomy?
parents are important support systems and attachment figures
Who was Harry Stack Sullivan?
the most influential theorists to discuss the importance of adolescent frienships
According to Sullivan, why are adolescent friendships important?
shape development of children and adolescents, important in meeting social needs, can foreshadow the quality of romantic relationships in emerging adulthood
What is a clique?
small group that ranges from about 2 to 12 individuals, averaging about 5 or 6 individuals, and often consists of adolescents who engage in similar activities
What do adolescents do in cliques?
share ideas and hang out together
What is a crowd?
larger group structure than a clique, a crowd is usually based on reputation and members may or may not spend much time together
What is a Rite of Passage?
a ceremony or ritual that marks an individuals transition from one status to another
What do most Rites of Passage focus on?
the transition to adult status
What is a Juvenile Delinquent?
an adolescent who breaks the law or engages in behavior that is considered illegal
Are males or females more likely to engage in delinquency?
males
What has happened to percentage of caseload concerning female delinquents from 1985 to 2007?
increased 8%
What causes Delinquency?
heredity, identity problems, community influences, and family experiences
According to Erikson, why do adolescents choose a negative identity?
their development has restricted them from acceptable social roles, or made them feel that they cannot measure up to the demands placed on them
Where do adolescent with a negative identity find support for their delinquent image?
among peers, reinforcing the negative identity
For Erikson, what is delinquency?
an attempt to establish an identity, even if it is a negative one
What is Emerging Childhood?
transition from adolescence to adulthood
When does Emerging Adulthood occur?
approximately 18 to 25 years of age
According to Arnett, what are the five key features that characterize emerging adulthood?
identity exploration, especially in love and work, instability, self-focused, feeling in-between, the age of possibilities, a time when individuals have an opportunity to transform their lives
According to Arnett, what is meant by "Identity Exploration, especially in love and work?"
emerging adulthood is the time during which key changes in identity take place for many individuals
According to Arnett, what is meant by "Instability?"
residential changes peal during early adulthood, a time during which there also is often instability in love, work, and education
According to Arnett, what is meant by "Self-Focused?"
emerging adults have little in the way of social obligations, little in the way of duties and commitments to others, which leaves them with a great deal of autonomy in running their own lives
According to Arnett, what is meant by "In-Between?"
many emerging adults don't consider themselves adolescents or full-fledged adults
According to Arnett, what is one thing that is meant by "the age of possibilities, a time when individuals have an opportunity to transform their lives?"
many emerging adults are optimistic about their future
According to Arnett, what is one thing that is meant by "the age of possibilities, a time when individuals have an opportunity to transform their lives?"
for emerging adults who have experienced difficult times while growing up, emerging adulthood presents an opportunity to reorient their lives in a more positive direction
What is one serious and pervasive health problem for many individuals?
obesity
What percentage of 27-39 year olds are obese?
27%
Out of 33 developed countries, which country had the highest percentage of obese adults?
United States
Out of 33 developed countries, which country had the lowest percentage of obese adults?
Japan
What is obesity linked to?
hypertension, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease
What is being overweight and obese associated with?
mental problems
For individuals that are 30% overweight, what is the increase in probability of death in middle adulthood?
40%
What is Extreme Binge Drinking?
individuals who had 10 or more drinks in a row
Has binge drinking increased or declined from 2004 to 2007?
decreased
What percentage has binge drinking declined from 2004 to 2007?
4%
Binge Drinking college students are _______ times more likely to drive after drinking
ten
Binge Drinking college students are _______ times more likely to fall behind in school
eleven
Binge Drinking college students are _______ as likely to have unprotected sex
twice
What does STI stand for?
Sexually Transmitted Infections
What is an STI?
disease that is primarily contracted through sex- intercourse as well as oran-genital and anal-genital sex
How many US adults are affected by an STI?
one in six
What is an individuals sexual orientation determined by?
combination of genetic, hormonal, cognitive, and environmental factors
What are 6 STI's?
gonorrhea, syphilis, chlamydia, genital herpes, AIDS, and genital warts
What is the most prevalent type of STI?
bacterial infections
What are three types of STI bacterial infections?
gonorrhea, syphilis, and chlamydia
What are three types of STI's caused by viruses?
genital herpes, AIDS, and genital warts
What is Gonorrhea caused by?
the bacterium, Neisseria Gonorrhoeae
How is Gonorrhea spread?
contact between infected moist membranes (genital, oral-genital, anal-genital) of two individuals
What is Gonorrhea characterized by?
discharge from penis or vagina and painful urination
What can Gonorrhea lead to?
infertility
Annually, how many cases of Gonorrhea in the US are there?
500,000 cases
Typically, what is the treatment for Gonorrhea?
penicillin, other antibiotics
What is Syphilis caused by?
the bacterium, Treponema Pallidum
What is Syphilis characterized by?
the appearance of a sore where Syphilis entered the body
Where can Syphilis be seen?
external genitals, vagina, or anus
Later on, what happens to an individual with Syphilis?
a skin rash breaks out on palms of hands and bottom of feet
If Syphilis is not treated, what can happen?
can lead to paralysis or even death
Annually, how many cases of Syphilis in the US are there?
100,000 cases
Typically, what is the treatment for Syphilis?
penicillin
What is Chlamydia caused by?
a common STI named for the bacterium Chlamydia Trachomatis
How is Chlamydia spread?
sexual contact
What does Chlamydia do to the genital organs of both sexes?
infects the genital organs
For women, what can Chlamydia lead to?
infertility
What is a recommendation about Chlamydia?
that adolescent and young adult females have an annual screening for Chlamydia
Annually, how many cases of Chlamydia in the US are there?
about 3 million people
Typically, what is the treatment for Chlamydia?
antibiotics
What is Genital Herpes caused by?
a family of viruses with different strains
How are Genital Herpes spread?
sexual contact
What do Genital Herpes involve?
an eruption of sores and blisters
Annually, how many cases of Genital Herpes in the US are there?
one in five US adults
Typically, what is the treatment for Genital Herpes?
there is no known cure but antiviral medications can shorten outbreaks
What is AIDS caused by?
once a person is infected with HIV, the virus breaks down and overpowers the immune system which leads to AIDS
How is AIDS spread?
semen and blood
What are common symptoms of an individual with AIDS?
fevers, night sweats, weight loss, chronic fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes
Annually, how many cases of AIDS in the US are there?
more than 300,000 cases of HIV virus in US 25-34 year olds
Typically, what is the treatment for AIDS?
no cure but new treatments have slowed the progression from HIV to AIDS
What countries have an epidemic incidence of AIDS?
sub-saharan countries
What is Genital Warts caused by?
the human papilloma-virus
Does an individual with Genital Warts usually show symptoms?
no
What are Genital Warts characterized by?
small, hard painless bumps in the vaginal area, or around the anus
Are Genital Warts contagious?
yes, very
What can Genital Warts cause?
cervical cancer and other genital cancers
What is Gardasil?
a new HPV preventive vaccine, approved for girls and women 9-26 years of age
Annually, how many cases of Genital Warts in the US are there?
about 5.5 million new cases annually
Typically, what is the treatment for Genital Warts?
a topical drug, freezing, or surgery
What is the most common STI in the United States?
Genital Warts
What is Rape?
forcible sexual intercourse with a person who does not give consent
What is Date or Acquaintance Rape?
coercive sexual activity directed at someone with whom the perpetrator is at least casually acquainted
What is Sexual Harassment?
a manifestation of power of one person over another
What three ways has the division of responsibility for work and family changed?
1. US husbands are taking increased responsibility for maintaining the home
2. US women are taking increased responsibility for breadwinning
3. US men are showing greater interest in their families and parenting
What is a result of the increase in women working outside the home?
new work-related and family issues have arisen
Who has had a difficulty breaking through the "glass ceiling?"
women and ethnic minorities
According to Erikson, what is the sixth developmental stage?
Intimacy vs Isolation
According to Erikson, what is intimacy?
finding oneself while losing oneself in another person
According to Erikson, what does intimacy require?
a commitment to another person
What can an inability to develop meaningful relationships with others harm?
an individual's personality
What is the key developmental issue in early adulthood?
intimacy vs isolation
What is Romantic Love?
has strong sexual and infatuation components
What is Romantic Love also called?
passionate love, or eros
When is Romantic Love predominantly seen in a love relationship?
the early period
What is Affectionate Love also called?
companionate love
What is Affectionate Love?
type of love that occurs when someone desires to have the other person near and has a deep, caring affection for the person
In reference to love, what did Sternberg propose?
a tri-archic theory of love
In the tri-archic theory of love, love can be thought of as a triangle. What are the three main dimensions of this triangle?
passion, intimacy, and commitment
According to the tri-archic theory of love, what does Passion involve?
physical and sexual attraction to another
According to the tri-archic theory of love, what does Intimacy relate to?
the emotional feelings of warmth, closeness, and sharing in a relationship
According to the tri-archic theory of love, what is Commitment?
the cognitive appraisal of the relationship and the intent to maintain the relationship even in the face of problems
According to Sternberg, what is the strongest, fullest form of love?
consummate love
What is Consummate Love?
involves passion, intimacy, and commitment
What ingredients are involved in relationship who is infatuated?
passion is the only ingredient in a relationship
What is Affectionate Love?
If a relationship is marked by intimacy and commitment but low or lacking in passion
What is Fatuous Love?
If a relationship is marked by passion and commitment but low or lacking in intimacy
in 2010, what percentage of Americans were married?
51%
In 1960, what percentage of Americans were married?
72%
What percentage of US adults have never married?
27%
In 2011, what is the average age for marriage for men?
28.7 years old
In 2011, what is the average age for marriage for women?
26.5 years old
In 1980, what was the average age for marriage for men?
24 years old
In 1980, what was the average age for marriage for women?
21 years old
In the US, what is the average duration of marriage?
just over 9 years
In 1960, what percentage of the adult population is divorced?
1.8%
In 2007, what percentage of the adult population is divorced?
8.6%
If a divorce is going to occur, when is it most likely to occur?
in the 5th to 10th years of marriage
What percentage of adults remarry within 3 years after getting divorced?
50%
What did John Gottman do?
used many methods to analyze what makes marriages work
According to Gottman, what principles indicate a marriage will work?
couples establish love maps, nurture fondness and admiration, turn toward each other, accept the influence of the partner, and created shared meaning
In order to make a marriage work, what does Gottman emphasize?
partners need to develop a deep friendship, show respect for each other, and embrace commitment
In the US, what childbearing trends have changed?
one-child families are increasing and women are having fewer children
What type of trends are these childbearing results creating for women?
by giving birth to fewer children, and reducing the demands of child care, women free up a significant portion of their life spans for other endeavors
What type of trends are these childbearing results creating for men?
they are more apt to invest a greater amount of time in fathering
What are some advantages of having children earlier, in their twenties?
parents are likely to have more physical energy, likely to have fewer medical problems with childbirth and pregnancy, the parents may be less likely to build up expectations for their children
What are some advantages of having children later, in their thirties?
parents will have had more time to consider and achieve some of their goals in life, parents will be more mature, parents will be better established in their careers and have more income for child-rearing expenses
What are strategies for divorced adults?
think of divorce as a chance to grow personally and to develop more positive relationships, making decisions carefully, focusing more on future, use strengths and resources to cope with difficulties, and not expecting to be successful and happy in everything you do
What is Genetic Expression?
activity of genes
What is Genetic Expression affected by?
environment
According to Erikson, what stage of development is the first year of life characterized by?
trust-versus-mistrust
What did Erikson propose about trust in infants?
infants learn trust when they are cared for in a consistently nurturant manner
What did Erikson propose about mistrust in infants?
if the infant is not well fed and kept warm on a consistent basis, a sense of mistrust is likely to develop
What is the lower limit of the ZPD?
the level of skill reached by the child working independently
What is the upper limit of the ZPD?
level of additional responsibility the child can accept with the assistance of an able instructor
What is Vygotsky's theory approach?
social constructivist approach
What does Vygotsky's social constructivist approach theory emphasize?
the social contexts of learning and the construction of knowledge through social interaction
What is Gender Typing?
the process by which a child becomes aware of their gender and thus behaves accordingly by adopting values and attributes of members of the sex that they identify as their own
What are consequences of maltreatment in childhood and adolescence?
poor emotion regulation, attachment problems, problems in peer relations, difficulty in adapting to school, depression, or delinquency
What are consequences in adult years of maltreatment in childhood and adolescence?
more likely to experience physical and mental health issues as well as sexual problems
What percentage of children are born to married parents who get divorced?
40%
What happens to custodial mothers after divorce?
lose about 1/4 to 1/2 of their pre-divorce income, increased workload, high rates of job instability, and residential moves to less desireable neighborhoods with inferior schools
When adults punish a child by yelling, screaming, or spanking, what are they presenting their child with?
out-of-control models for handling stressful situations
What is one effect of a parent punishing their child by yelling, screaming, or spanking?
children may imitate this behavior
What can punishment instill in a child?
fear, rage, or avoidance