Developmental Psychology Exam 2

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first phase of childhood ages 3-5 (kindergarten)

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early childhood

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2nd phase of childhood, elementary school years, ages 6-11

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middle childhood

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area at the uppermost front of the brain, responsible for reasoning and planning our actions

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frontal lobes

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takes two decades to mature

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cerebral cortex (pruning in frontal lobes doesn't occur until age 9)

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physical abilities that involve small coordinated movements, such as drawing and writing one's name (slight girl advantage)

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fine motor skills

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ratio of weight to height; main indicator of overweight or underweight

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Body Mass Index (BMI)

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BMI at or above the 95th percentile compared to the US norms established for children in the 1970s

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childhood obesity

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Piaget. the type of cognition characteristic of children aged 2 to 7, marked by an inability to step back from one's immediate perceptions and think conceptually

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preoperational thinking

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Piaget. the type of cognition characteristic of children aged 8-11, marked by the ability to reason about the world in a more logical, adult way

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concrete operational thinking

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Piagetian tasks that involve changing the shape of a substance to see whether children can go beyond the way that substance visually appears to understand that the amount is still the same

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conservation tasks

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in Piaget's conservation tasks, the concrete operational child's knowledge that a specific change in the way a given substance looks can be reversed

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reversibility

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in Piaget's conservation tasks, the preoperational child's tendency to fix on the most visually striking feature of a substance and not take other dimensions into account

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centering

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in Piaget's conservation tasks, the concrete operational child's ability to look at several dimensions of an object or substance

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decentering

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the understanding that a general category can encompass several subordinate elements (skittles or candy)

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class inclusion

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the ability to put objects in order according to some principle, such as size (children can't. they base this on first appearance, such as the ends of sticks' placement instead of length. taller means older, etc.)

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seriation

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in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's inability to grasp that a person's core "self" stays the same despite changes in external appearance

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identity constancy

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in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's belief that inanimate objects are alive

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animism

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in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's belief that human beings make everything in nature

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artificialism

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in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's inability to understand that other people have different points of view from their own

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egocentrism

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what Piaget's theory leaves out

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the impact of teaching in promoting cognitive growth

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in Vygotsky's theory, the gap between a child's ability to solve a problem totally on his own and his potential knowledge if taught by a more accomplished person

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zone of proximal development

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the process of teaching new skills by entering a child's zone of proximal development and tailoring one's efforts to that person's competence level

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scaffolding

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in information processing theory, the limited capacity gateway system, containing all of the material that we can keep in awareness at a single time. The material in this system is either processed for more permanent storage or lost.

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working memory

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any frontal lobe ability that allows us to inhibit our responses and to plan and direct our thinking

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executive functions

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a learning strategy in which people repeat information to embed it in memory

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rehearsal

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a learning strategy in which people manage their awareness so as to attend only to what is relevant and to filter out unneeded information

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selective attention

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the most common childhood learning disorder in the US, disproportionately affecting boys, characterized by excessive restlessness and distractibility at home and school

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attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

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in Vygotsky's theory, the way by which human beings learn to regulate their behavior and master cognitive challenges, through silently repeating information or talking to themselves

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inner speech

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the sound units that convey meaning in a given language--for example, in English, the c sound of cat and the b sound of bat

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phonemes

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the smallest unit of meaning in a particular language--for example, "boys" contains two

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morphemes

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the average number of morphemes per sentence

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mean length of utterance (MLU)

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the system of grammatical rules in a particular language

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syntax

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the meaning system of a language--that is, what words stand for

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semantics

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an error in early language development, in which young children apply the rules for plurals and past tenses even to exceptions, so irregular forms sound like regular forms

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overregularization

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an error in early language development, in which young children apply verbal labels too broadly

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overextension

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an error in early language development in which young children apply verbal labels too narrowly

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underextension

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recollections of events and experiences that make up one's life history

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autobiographical memories

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children's first cognitive understanding which appears at about age 4, that other people have different beliefs and perspectives from their own

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theory of mind

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the capacity to mange one's emotional state

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emotion regulation

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a personality style that involves acting one one's immediate impulses and behaving disruptively and aggressively

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externalizing tendencies

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a personality style that involves intense fear, social inhibition, and often depression

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internalizing tendencies

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the ability to observe our abilities and actions from an outside frame of reference and to reflect on our inner state

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self-awareness

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evaluating oneself as either good or bad as a result of comparing the self to other people

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self-esteem

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Erikson's term for the psychosocial task of middle childhood, involving the capacity to work for one's goals

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industry vs. inferiority (inferiority produces industry)

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competence areas

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scholastic competence, behavioral conduct, athletic skills, peer-like ability, and physical appearance

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people w/ externalizing problems...

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will say nothing's wrong even if it is

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a state that develops when a person feels incapable of affecting the outcome of events, and so gives up w/o trying

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learned helplessness

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for a child that is having difficulties...

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we need to enhance self-efficacy and promote realistic perceptions about the self

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sharing, helping, and caring actions (usually a good predictor of adult behavior)

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prosocial behavior

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prosocial behaviors that we carry out for selfless, non-egocentric reasons

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altruism

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feeling the exact emotion that another person is experiencing

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empathy

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a state necessary for acting prosocially involving feeling upset for a person who needs help (perhaps related to altruism)

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sympathy

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children who lack self confidence or who are unempathetic...

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are less prosocial (praise for being a kind person is better than reward for a nice act)

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the ideal discipline style for socializing prosocial behavior, involving getting a child who has behaved hurtfully to empathize with the pain he has caused the other person

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induction

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a feeling of being personally humiliated

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shame

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feeling upset about having caused harm to a person or about having violated one's internal standard of behavior

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guilt

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any hostile or destructive act

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aggression

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a hostile or destructive act initiated to achieve a goal

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instrumental aggression

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a hostile or destructive act carried out in response to being frustrated or hurt

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reactive aggression

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a hostile or destructive act designed to cause harm to a person's relationships

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relational aggression

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power assertive parents and being that obnoxious kid in school...

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make for an aggressive path

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the tendency of highly aggressive children to see motives and actions as threatening when they are actually benign

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hostile attributional bias

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running and chasing behavior

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exercise play

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play that involves shoving, wrestling, and hitting, but in which no actual harm is intended; especially characteristic of boys

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rough and tumble play

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play that involves making up and acting out a scenario also called pretend play

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fantasy play

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fantasy play in which children work together to develop and act out the scenes

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collaborative pretend play

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play...

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allows children to practice adult roles
allows children a sense of control
furthers children's understanding of social norms

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play in which boys and girls associate only with members of their own sex--typical of childhood

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gender-segregated play

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differences between boys and girls in play...

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boys excitedly run around; girls calmly talk
boys compete in groups; girls play collaboratively one to one
boys live in a more exclusionary, separate world

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this seems to program masculine or feminine brains...
this reinforces the stereotypes

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prenatal exposure to testosterone
society and socialization

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an explanation for gender stereotyped behavior that emphasizes the role of cognitions; specifically the idea that once children know their own gender label (girl or boy), they selectively watch and model their own sex

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gender schema theory

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friends...

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offer emotional support and validate feelings
protect and enhance the developing self
teach us to manage our emotions and handle conflicts

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being popular is...

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having exceptional social skills
(except by ninth grade, they might not be the most liked anymore)

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a situation in which one or more children (or adults) harass or target a specific child for systematic abuse

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bullying

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a strategy for teaching emotion regulation and social skills to rejected children, especially boys w/ externalizing problems

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social skills training

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rejected children have...

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externalizing and sometimes internalizing disorders. they don't fit in with the rest of the group.

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never remarried, biological children

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traditional two-parent family

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parents have remarried, children grow up with stepparents and step-siblings

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blended families

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mostly headed by women, mostly low income

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one-parent families

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in Diana Baumrind's framework, how parents align on two dimensions of child rearing: nurturance (or child-centeredness and discipline (or structure and rules)

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parenting style

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in Baumrind's parenting-styles framework, the best possible child-rearing style, in which parents rank high on both nurturance and discipline, providing both love and clear family rules

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authoritative parents

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type of childrearing in which parents provide plenty of rules, but rank low on child-centeredness, stressing unquestioning obedience

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authoritarian parents

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parents provide few rules but rank high on child-centeredness, being extremely loving but providing little discipline

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permissive parents

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the worst child-rearing approach, in which parents provide little discipline and little nurturing or love

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rejecting-neglecting parents

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children who rebound from serious early life traumas to construct successful adult lives

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resilient children

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bidirectionality of parenting...

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good parenting passed to children or child's temperament shaping the parenting they receive

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the use of physical force to discipline a child

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corporal punishment

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any act that seriously endangers a child's physical or emotional well being

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child maltreatment

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bodily injury that leaves bruises

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physical abuse

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caregiver's failure to provide adequate supervision and care

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neglect

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acts that cause serious emotional damage, such as terrorizing or exploiting a child

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emotional abuse

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rape and incest to fondling and exhibitionistic acts

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sexual abuse (hard to pin down actual abuse rates)

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these can all contribute to abuse...

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parents' personalities, serious life stress, and children's vulnerabilities (abused children rarely abuse their children)

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divorced parents vs. not...

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children with divorced parents do worse in all areas, but it is often worse if unhappy parents stay married

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measures that evaluate a child's knowledge in specific school-related areas

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achievement tests

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standard intelligence test used in childhood, consisting of a verbal scale, a performance scale, and a variety of subtests

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WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children)

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the label for significantly impaired intellectual functioning, defined as when a child (or adult) has an IQ of 70 or below accompanied by evidence of deficits in learning ability

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mentally retarded

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the label for any impairment in language or any deficit related to listening, thinking, speaking, reading, writing, spelling, or understanding mathematics; diagnosed when a score on an intelligence test is much higher than a child's performance on achievement tests

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specific learning disability

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a brain-based learning disability that is characterized by reading difficulties, lack of fluency, poor word recognition, and problems in spelling

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dyslexia

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the label for superior intellectual functioning characterized by an IQ score of 130 or above, showing that a child ranks in the top 2 percent of his age group

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gifted

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in measurement terminology, a basic criterion of a test's accuracy that scores must be fairly similar when a person takes the test more than once

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reliability

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in measurement terminology, a basic criterion for a test's accuracy involving whether that measure reflects the real-world quality it is supposed to measure

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validity

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Charles Spearman's term for a general intelligence factor that he claimed underlies all cognitive activities

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"g"

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in Robert Sternberg's framework on successful intelligence, the facet of intelligence involving performing well on academic-type problems

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analytic intelligence

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Sternberg. the facet of intelligence involved in producing novel ideas or innovative work

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creative intelligence

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Sternberg. the facet of intelligence involved in knowing how to act competently in real-world situations

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practical intelligence

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Sternberg. the optimal form of cognition, involving having a good balance of analytic, creative, and practical intelligence

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successful intelligence

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in Howard Gardner's perspective on intelligence, the principle that there are 8 separate kinds of intelligence--verbal, mathematical, interpersonal, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, naturalist--plus a possible ninth form called spiritual intelligence

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multiple intelligences

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successful schools...

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set high standards and believe every child can succeed. teachers are nurturing to students and one another

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the drive to act based on the pleasure of taking that action in itself, not for an external reinforcer or reward

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intrinsic motivation

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the drive to take an actin because that activity offers external reinforcers such as praise, money, or a good grade

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extrinsic motivation