Developmental Psychology - Early Social Development

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Attachment

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An emotional tie or relationship between two people shown in their behaviour.

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Ethology

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The study of animal behaviour. Ethologists observe how animals act and identify the purpose the behaviour is likely to have served in helping survival in the evolutionary past.

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Critical Period

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A specific period of time in which something has to develop. For example, in an embryo limbs start to develop between 24 and 26 days after conception. Anything that interferes with the process during those days (for example drugs taken by the mother) will have a lasting effect.

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Sensitive Period

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A period of time in which something is likely to occur, for example, young children are likely to start talking around the age of 12-18 months. However, development can take place outside the sensitive period as we can see in studies of older children who have been brought up in isolation but develop language later in childhood.

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Ecological Validity

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The extent to which the methods, materials and setting of the experiment approximate the real-life situation being studied.

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Positive Reinforcement

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Something which increases the likelihood that the behaviour before it will be repeated.

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Negative Reinforcement

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When a behaviour or response switches off something unpleasant. Taking a painkiller switches off the pain of a headache so the behaviour - painkiller taking - is likely to be repeated.

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Unconditioned Stimulus

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An aspect of the environment which produces an automatic, unlearned response. For example, food produces salivation in a hungry dog.

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Unconditioned Response

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An unlearned, reflex response to an unconditioned stimulus. Dilation of the pupil of the eye is an unconditioned response to the unconditioned stimulus of dim light.

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Monotropy

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The tendency of babies to form a primary attachment to one caregiver.

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Internal Working Model

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A template for future relationships including a model of how you and other people are likely to behave.

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Meta-Analysis

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A procedure in which researchers draw together and analyse the results of many different studies that have used a similar procedure. A meta-analysis uses only quantitative behaviour.

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Individualistic Cultures

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Those where personal independence and achievement are valued. Examples of individualistic cultures in this study are North America and Germany.

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Collectivist Cultures

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Those where there is a high degree of interdependence between people. Examples of collectivist cultures in this meta-analysis are Japan, China and Israel.

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Separation

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Takes place when the child spends some time away from their primary attachment figure. Separations may be for short of longer periods.

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Separation Anxiety

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A longer-term effect of separation in which the child alternates between clinginess and detachment.

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Privation

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Literally the lack of something. Emotional privation is the lack of attachment or love in a child who has been unable to form an attachment. Physical privation refers to the lack of basic physical needs such as food or shelter.

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Institutionalisation

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Refers to the behaviour patterns of children who have been raised in institutions such as orphanages of children's homes. In institutions children may have relationships with a variety of staff. However, they may not have a one-to-one attachment in the same way as a child raised in a family.

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Disinhibited Attachment

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A behaviour patternm shown by some children who have been raised in institutions. Key features include attention-seeking behaviour towards all adults, even strangers, a lack of fear of strangers, making inappropriate physical contact with adults and lack of checking back to the parent in stressful situations.

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Day Care

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Refers to care for children under school age, generally at a nursery or by a childminder.

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Longitudinal

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A study that follows the same group across a long period of time, returning to study them at regular intervals.

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Prospective

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Refers to the future. Prospective studies involve following paricipants over a period of time from the start of the study. An example would be studies of life stress and health.

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Quasi-Experiment

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An experiment that takes place in a field setting but the independent variable is already set, i.e. is not controlled by the investigator.