Developmental Psych Exam 2

Front 1

Piaget: constructivist approach

Back 1

viewed children as discovering, or constructing, virtually all knowledge about the world through their own activity

Front 2

Piaget: Methods of child study: analogical problem solving

Back 2

applying a solution strategy from one problem to other relevant problems

problem: pull a string to get a toy
differed in texture and color of string, floor mat, type of toy
babies obtained toy more readily with each additional problem

Front 3

Piaget: schemes

Back 3

organized ways of making sense of experience that change with age (as we grow older/become more cognitively advanced, we gain more abstract schemas)

schemas are sensorimotor in nature —children gain knowledge from the world by using senses and movements
ex. dropping schema: 6 month old simply lets go of a rattle. by 18 months, she tosses objects down basement stairs.

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Piaget: adaptation

Back 4

how we acquire knowledge through direct interaction with our environments

1. assimilation: we use current schemas to understand the world (ex. one of Fernanda's first word was pigeon. Points at everything that moves and calls it a pigeon)

2. accommodation: change your schemas because your current schema is not sufficient to understand the world (ex. Learns new animal names)

Front 5

Piaget: equilibration

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back and forth movement between equilibrium and disequilibrium (cognitive discomfort)

what drives child to move from stage to stage: cognitive anxiety that pushes child to accommodate and more effective schemes are produced

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Piaget: organization

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creating connections between schemas (ex. putting animal names into categories like mammals and birds)

occurs internally, apart from direct contact with environment

Front 7

Piaget: stage concept

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children's knowledge is discontinuous (ex. sensorimotor stage does not have mental representation. pre operational does.)

1. invariant sequence: no skipping around
2. qualitative changes: in how you're thinking (not what you're thinking) from stage to stage
3. each stage is defined by general properties of thought (ex. mental representation)
4. hierarchic integration: piecing together smaller cognitive skills to create larger skills
5. culturally universal: everybody goes through these stages around the same time

Front 8

Piaget: Sensorimotor Stage (0-2)
6 substages!

Back 8

crowning achievement: mental representation

Composed of 6 substages

1. Reflexive schemes (0-1 month): all reflexes, children— just practice them and gain more control over time

2. Primary circular reactions (1-4 month): centered around infant's body, response is pleasurable so it stimulates own repetition. largely motivated by basic needs

3. Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months): centered around the environment, concerned with outcome, schemas are not reflexes but instead results of accidental learning (ex. after accidentally battling a dangling fish, he tries to recapture the swinging motion)

4. Coordination of secondary circular reactions (8-12 months): intentionality begins, understand that actions have effects (physical casualty. ex. when they push something they know it will roll), object permanence (objects that they don't directly see still exist), but will only look where they were successful (ex. hide keys under table. child accidentally finds keys on table. if you hide the keys somewhere else, will only look on table — A not B search error)

5. Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months): experimental, interest in what different effects produce different outcomes (ex. throw keys to see how far they go), imitate novel behaviors, accurate A-B search

6. Mental representation (18-24 months): internal depictions of objects and events — no longer arrives at solutions to problems through trial and error; they arrive at solutions suddenly, obviously experimenting with actions inside their heads.
object permanence is achieved, invisible displacement (finding a toy moved while out of sight), deferred imitation (the ability to remember and copy the behavior of models who are not present), make believe play

Front 9

Piaget: Method for studying children: violation-of-expectation method

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When studying infants, violation of expectation was used as evidence to indicate that children demonstrate cognitive skills and understandings earlier than Piaget had stated.

What its typically done is that children are shown an expected physical event (for example a picture of a man right side up) and then show them a picture of an unexpected event (ex. a man upside down). If the child attenuates more to the unexpected event, it indicates that they have an understanding about the physical world. (for babies, can be thought of as habituation)

For older children, violations can be used to investigate egocentrism, and therefore does not always have to be about the physical world. For babies, it is about the physical world.

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Piaget: Preoperational Period (2-7)

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1) gains in mental representation through:

-make believe play (as children age, become more detached from real life, less self centered, more complex)
later, sociodramatic play: make believe with others (starts at age 2-increases rapidly during early childhood); very cooperative

- symbol—real world relations (mastered around age 3) (ex. understanding that there is a word that represents a train)
dual representation: viewing a symbolic object as both an object in its own right and a symbol (model house is an object, but also a symbol of a real house)

2) categorical categorization: perceptual and conceptual abilities

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Piaget: displaced reference

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realization that words can be used to cue mental images of things not physically present (symbolic understanding around age 1 in teritary circular reactions, mastered around age 3 in the preoperational period)

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Limitations of Preoperational Thought: egocentrism and animistic thinking

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animistic thinking: belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities

egocentrism: failure to distinguish others' view from one's own (ex. Emma knows she has a sister named Gwenyth, but asked whether Gwenyth had a sister she said no!) (ex. Piaget's three mountains problem)

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Limitations of Preoperational Thought: inability to conserve

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conservation: knowing that if you don't do anything to the entity, the entity remains the same
(ex. two identical glasses of water. pour one water into a wide and short bowl. child will think the taller glass has more water)

* centration: pre operational children focus on one aspect and neglect others (ex. centers on the height of the water, not realizing changes in width compensate for changes in height)
* irreversibility: children cannot mentally reverse a set of steps (ex. cannot imagine water being poured back into original container so can't see how the amount is the same)

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Limitations of Preoperational Thought: lack of hierarchical classification

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organization of objects into classes based on similarities and differences

Piaget's class inclusion problem: Are there more yellow flowers or flowers? Piaget would say a child would answer yellow flowers. (children are so distracted by the salient features that they don't understand that they're all flowers)

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Piaget: Concrete Operational Stage (7-11)

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* Operational thinking allows children to combine, separate, order, and transform objects and images mentally.

* Ability to conserve, classify, and reason spatially (cognitive maps: mental representations of familiar large scale space, like neighborhood or school)
Thinking logically

* Decentration of thought (ex. passing water conservation tasks — "water is shorter, but it's also wider")

* Reduction in egocentrism

seriation: ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight
transitive inference: seriate mentally (ex. if stick A is longer than B, and B is longer than C, then A is longer than C)

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Limitations of concrete operational stage

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operations work best with concrete info—children need to try out/manipulate things physically

have problems with ABSTRACT ideas

Have to go through the continuum of acquisition: mastering concrete operational tasks gradually, step by step
Rather than coming up with general logic to apply to various situations, they seem to work out the logic of each problem separately.
(horizontal decalage: inconsistency in thinking within a developmental stage; can solve one type of problem using mature thinking skills, but cannot do the same for less familiar problems)

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Piaget: Formal Operational Stage (11+)

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1. propositional thought: evaluating the logic of verbal statements (relying on the meaning created through language, not just interactions with the physical world) Children younger than 10 have difficulty reasoning from premises that contradict their own beliefs because they fail to understand logical necessity of propositional thought.

2. hypothetico-deductive reasoning: solving a problem systematically and deducing hypotheses from a general theory (take into account all possible variables that might influence a solution, able to see when there's no solution)

Piaget's pendulum problem: what influences the speed with which a pendulum swings through its arc? tests object weights, force, object height, length of string

Consequences of adolescent cognitive changes:

* imaginary audience: adolescent's belief that they are the focus of everyone's attention
* personal fable: inflated opinion of their own importance

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Application of Piagetian theory

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Piaget and Education:
- discovery learning: discover for themselves through interaction with environment (instead of presenting ready made knowledge verbally)
- teachers use activities that build on children's current thinking (do not try to speed up development)
- acceptance of individual differences in rates of development

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Evaluation of Piagetian theory

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does cognitive development take place in stages?
Some reject stages: thought processes are alike at all ages —just present to different extents!

Argue that infants begin cognitive development with far more than sensorimotor reflexes

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Vygotsky's sociocultural theory: basic ideas

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cognition arises from social interaction with more skilled members of society (parents, teachers, siblings…whatever your culture defines as skilled members)

any developing higher cognitive skill appears on two psychological planes:
interpsychological (any kind of social interaction between child and skilled member of society) ex. storytelling occurs first within conversations. storytelling skill become internalized as he develops --> intrapsychological (child now can do the task independently) now can answer What did you do today? **
restructuring of the skill happens in the transition

development is a process of internalization (active) and decontextualization (able to use the skill in another context)

language is the mediator of cognitive development—language is the tool we develop to develop cognitive ability (this is where Piaget and Vygotsky take different approaches)
"No the red piece doesn't fit, lemme try the blue one." Piaget would say this is egocentric speech, or "talk for self".
Vygotsky- private speech (a child's self directed speech). Children speak to themselves for self-guidance.

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Vygotsky's sociocultural theory: zone of proximal development, intersubjectivity, scaffolding and contexts (e.g make believe play)

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range of tasks too difficult for the child to do alone but possible with the help of adults and skilled peers

intersubjectivity promotes development: 2 people who begin task with different understandings arrive at a shared understanding

scaffolding: support offered to fit the child's current level (guided participation: broader than scaffolding; allows for more variation across cultures)

Contexts can act as scaffolds.
Make believe play: 1) acting in accord with internal ideas, not just responding to external stimuli (ex. imagines a stick as a horse) 2) better understand social rules because they must think before they act (a child who imagines himself as the father and a doll as his child obeys the rules of parental behavior)

Front 22

Applications of Vygotsky's Theory

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Vygotsky and Education

assisted discovery and peer collaboration

reciprocal teaching: the teacher and a small group of students question, summarize, clarify, and predict from passages

cooperative learning: small groups work towards common goals

Front 23

Evaluation of Vygotsky's Theory

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- emphasized language, but in some cultures verbal dialogues not importance in learning
- said little about biological contributions to cognition (no motor, perceptual, memory, problem-solving capacities)

Front 24

How would Piaget view the relation of language and thought? Vygotsky?

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Piaget: language is a result of higher cognitive abilities.
children only begin with cognition —> mental representation —> language (child has a concept, then attach a label)

Vygotsky: language aids the development of higher cognitive abilities
(babies have a predisposition to use tools AND to use language for communicative use) cognition develops slowly, language develops slowly, they eventually intertwine)
at 24 months, developed mental representation through language

Front 25

Narrative Development
**possible essay

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* narratives (simple definition: two events put in a sequence) combine different aspects of development—tool of socio-emotional abilities, linked to memory skills

* predictive of various aspects of school performance

* effective use of language (picking words from memory), cognitive (sequencing events in memory), social skills (able for read the audience)

* up until age 4, children rely heavily on adult scaffolding (providing words to represent the events, guide them how to organize events) to share coherent and cohesive stories (begin sharing stories around 2.5, but only around adult support)

Preschoolers’ restricted narratives that presume more shared knowledge than their listener has is partly due to their limited working memories.

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3 types of narratives

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appearing in this order:
scripts (telling what usually happens when you do X, told in present tense) (ex. What happens when you go into a restaurant? "You go in, get the food, eat, then pay.")

personal experience (event you have experienced in the past)
fictional (making up events)

Front 27

Constructivist view of narrative development

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* everyday parent-child conversations play a formative role in preschoolers' development of narrative skills

* dependent on cultural communicative patterns and ideologies

* intimate relation between language and culture

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2 main dimensions of parent scaffolding:
narrative elaboration

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* extent to which adults request or provide NEW information about the narrative

* correlated with amount of talk

* best child outcomes are associated with highly elaborative parental styles

Ex. Highly Elaborative: What did you do for your birthday? Did you like your cake? You remember when you took your cake to school and then...and the kids and you decorated it?

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2 main dimensions of parent scaffolding: narrative participation

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(high participation = adult participates a lot)
(low participation = adult co-constructs the story with child)
* characterizes how adults structure the interactive nature of the narrative (narrator vs. audience)
* (think dialogic reading)
* independent of amount of talk
* best child outcomes are associated with co-constructive (low participation of the parent) parental styles

Ex. Low participation/co-constructive
So what's happening? What's the boy doing? What's the dog doing?

Front 30

children's narratives: European American

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* focus on a single past experience
* organize stories linearly, according to setting, problem, and resolution
* has an abstract (prefaces what they're going to tell you), problem to be solved/high point of narrative, coda that links past story to the present

Front 31

children's narratives: Japanese

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* concise, usually mistaken for a lack of elaboration
* one narrative is composed of multiple experiences
* irrelevant info is left out for the listener to infer
* orientation (where), action, and outcome
* regularity in the number of verses per stanza (3) LIKE A HAIKU

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children's narratives: African

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* lengthy, relate to various experiences
* sequenced thematically and linked casually (x happened because y happened)
* lot of action sequences and evaluation
* point for telling the story is made implicit
* poetic devices for cohesion

Front 33

information processing approach/ view of the human mind

Back 33

Vygotsky and Piaget look at development holistically but do not break down cognition is in terms of perception, memory etc.

Information processor = computer
Mind --> a symbol (representation) manipulating system

encoding, recording, decoding

the mind is not passive (similar to Vygotsky and Piaget) at processing info

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General model of information processing: store models

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we store information in our three systems of memory = hardware of your computer
then we use mental strategies to operate on and transform the information = software

depth of processing: (the mind is a constant coder of info)
superficial encoding vs. deeper encoding

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Three units of memory

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1. sensory register: sights and sounds stored only momentarily (whether or not you choose to store in short-term depends on your attention)

2. short term memory store, includes working memory: items held in mind while also working on them to manipulate those items (limited capacity, stored briefly)
reasons for gains in working memory capacity: brain development, practice with schemes and automatization, and formation of central conceptual structures

3. long term memory (stores info permanently)

Front 36

central executive

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(the overseer) directs the flow of info, directs attention, self-regulation

Front 37

Information Processing:
What develops? 3 Major changes that correspond to these skills? Why do they change?

Back 37

What develops?
attention
storing strategies: move from short term to long term
retrieval strategies: move from long term to short term
knowledge base
organization
metacognitive skills

3 Major Changes that correspond to these skills:
short term memory: capacity changes as a child develops
information processing speed: some processes even become automatic
executive functioning: which directs attention

Why do they change?
related to brain myelination and synaptic pruning (the faster connections stay)
greater gains in earlier years (early childhood to middle)

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Information Processing: processes that change with age: Attention

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Over time…
increased focus and selectivity, increased adaptability (ex. hearing a car alarm during a lecture), increased planfulness (ex. knowing how long you can study until you need a break)

Play helps scaffold planfulness! They begin to allocate attention and understand how they complete tasks

In order for these attention gains to occur, need these two skills:
1. cognitive inhibition: your ability to control external and internal distracting stimuli
2. effectiveness of attentional strategies (in this sequence)
1) production deficiency: preschoolers fail to produce strategies when they could be helpful
2) control deficiency: young elementary children can sometimes produce but not consistently. They have difficulty controlling strategies effectively
3) utilization deficiency: slightly later, controls strategies consistently but performance does not improve
4) effective strategy use: performance improves

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Information Processing: processes that change with age: Memory

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Storing Strategies:
* rehearsal (superficial encoding)
* organization (deeper encoding)
* elaboration: creating a relationship between pieces of information not in same category

Retrieval strategies:
* recognition: noticing that a stimulus is identical or similar to one previous experienced
* recall: generating a mental representation of an absent stimulus

recognition (ex. multi choice) is always easier than recall (ex. fill in the blank). Recall shows greater improvement than recognition over the childhood years because older children have a wider range of retrieval cues than younger children.
These two strategies develop in preschool and early school years

* reconstruction: reproducing stored information (ex. an essay)

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Information Processing: increased organization
Procedural, semantic, and episodic memories

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procedural: how to
semantic: general knowledge
episodic: personally experienced events

- semantic memory develops earlier than episodic

Front 41

Information Processing: processes that change with age: Metacognition

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(around 4)
*awareness of cognitive abilities

*develops with theory of mind: understanding that you have a mind. (Came out of Piaget, children assume that everyone knows only what they know --> then they begin to understand other people's perceptions). Also, children must think about their own thinking to master complex tasks— "I better write that phone number down, or else I'll forget it"

*cognitive self-regulation: continually monitoring progress toward a goal (When reading a story for a book report, Natalie does not notice when a passage makes no sense. This demonstrates that Natalie is not yet good at cognitive self regulation).

Page 303!
knowledge base expands — don't have to directly observe either, you can extend your knowledge by making mental inferences

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Applications of information processing approach (reading and math)

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Reading
emergent literacy: children's active efforts to construct literacy knowledge
phonological awareness: ability to reflect on and manipulate the sound structure of spoken language
debate between whole language approach (children should be exposed to full text) vs. phonics approach (coached on phonics, or basic rules of written symbols into sounds)
Studies of reading show that children best learn to read using a combination of both

Math
toddlers begin to grasp ordinality: order relationships between quantities
cardinality: last word in a counting sequence indicates the quantity of items in a set

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Evaluation of information processing approach

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strength: precisely breaks down complex cognitive activities into components

limitation: by analyzing cognition into components, its difficult reassembling them into a broad theory of development
also, computer models do not reflect the richness of real life learning experiences, imagination, creativity

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What defines human language?

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Productivity (with a finite set of symbols, you can create an infinite amount of ideas)
Semanticity (symbol representation)
Displacement (meaning beyond the immediate context)

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Subsystems of language

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Phonology: sound system (phoneme: smallest unit of sound)
Grammar (morphology & syntax): how you combine different sounds to create meaning (morpheme: smallest unit that creates meaning) (ex. free morpheme carries meaning alone "happy", bound morpheme need to attach to free morpheme "un")
(syntax: word order)
Semantics: (lexicon and concepts) relationship between words and their concepts
Pragmatics: language use, conversational and discourse skills

Front 46

Nativist/Innatist Approach

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Noam Chomsky
* Important aspects of children's linguistic knowledge (i.e grammar) are innate
* Language Acquisition Device (LAD): contains Universal (shared across all languages) grammar (UG) and parameters (rules that distinguish between languages) (different from LMC because skills are LINGUISTIC, whereas LMC is COGNITIVE)

major limitation: how children manage to link grammatical rules with the strings of words they hear is unclear

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Interactionist Approach

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* important aspects of children's linguistic knowledge are learned, and thus, input-based. (INFO PROCESSING THEORY)
* children's knowledge of grammar emerges from their everyday use of language (SOCIAL INTERACTIONIST THEORY: strong desire to communicate + exposure to rich language environment)
* acknowledges the contribution of other inner capacities, such as cognition (INFO PROCESSING THEORY)

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Language development: what four facts do we know?

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* Language is a complex set of interwoven abilities. (So you cannot study language in isolation; linked to cognitive, brain, social development)

* Developing language requires specialized neural mechanisms (biology), cognitive processes to make it possible (cognition), society in which to learn it (social)

* Comprehension precedes production (ex. I'm a receptive bilingual; can't speak Korean but can understand it)

* There are individual (and cultural) variations in both the process and outcomes of language development.

Front 49

Child centered speech vs. Situation centered
**possible essay

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Child centered: adapt situation to child
* Child directed speech (CDS): parents respond to what the child says, fills in gaps, clarifying and elaborating
* Simplified registered features: simple grammar, simple words, lots of repetition
* negotiation of meaning via expansion and paraphrase
* joint attention: child and caregiver attends to same thing
* typical communicative situation: dyadic (one kid, one parent)

Situation centered: adapt child to situation
* modeling of (unsimplified) utterances for child to repeat to 3rd party (ex.
* child directed to notice others
* topics arise from range of situational circumstances to which caregiver wishes child to respond
* typical communicative pattern: multiparty (mother facilitates conversation between child and 3rd party)

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comprehensive view of language development (diagram)

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Child needs to break into the speech stream --> develop a lexical base (tend to be linked to the present environment ex. Fernanda's first word is cat because they have cats.) --> develop grammatical knowledge and develop phonological system

(at the same time, developing conversational skills: when to take turns etc)

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Prelinguistic development

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ways of communicating before you have words

*newborns are capable of categorical speech perception: knowing different phonemes are different
*adults speak to babies in infant directed speech (IDS)
*newborns are sensitive to a wider range of pitches than children and adults
*first speech sounds: cooing and babbling, then protoimperatives and protodeclaratives
*gazing, pointing

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Phonological development

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adopt temporary strategies for producing sounds that bring adult words within their current range of physical and cognitive capabilities
ex. deleting unstressed syllables in a multisyllable word (banana become nana, giraffe become naffe)
replacing liquid sounds with glides (ready becomes weady)

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Language milestones!

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(0-2 years) — not stages, overlapping periods

3 months: cooing (vowel sounds)
6 months: babbling (consonants with vowels, da da ba ba) (reflects the sounds and intonation of children’s language community, some of which are transferred to their first words.)
9 months: proto-imperative (children request for things from others) and protodeclaratives (pointing to, touching, holding up an object and get others to notice) + gestures to accompany these (intonation changes!)
12 months: one word
18 months: two word combinations

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Semantic development:
Learning words

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* first words are tied to infant's immediate environment

* approximately a year later, vocab ranges from 186-310 words (rapid gain of words + lots of variability because of different language inputs) (large vocab makes a big difference in infant outcomes because it is their foundation for reading)

* comprehension precedes production (between understanding and producing 50 words, there is a 5 month gap) Think about how you can understand Korean but can't produce sentences

* vocab spurt: rapid learning (most current research shows that not all children have the spurt)

* considerable individual variation, not only in rate but also in strategies

expressive style [learn formulaic expressions like "thank you" and "I want it", but don't know the parts. smaller vocab, language is social and emotional]
vs. referential style [large vocab, know individual words and string together to create sentences]
Referential style toddlers think words are for naming things, whereas expressive style toddlers believe words are for talking about people's feelings and needs.

* developmental errors, specifically extensional errors
underextensions: restricting a word to refer to a subset of adult reference (ex. cup refers only to the green cup that they drink juice in but not any other cup)
overextensions: referring "cup" to bowl, plate

* fast mapping (doesn't need to hear word many times before integrating into speech and using mostly correctly) and syntactic bootstrapping (analyze the word's place in a sentence to gain meaning) (Ex. Max’s mother says, “Look at the purple cup.” Although Max does not yet know what “purple” means, he interprets this new word as descriptive of the cup.)

*mutual exclusivity bias: assumption that words belong to completely separate categories (i.e only one label can be applied to each object)

*shape bias: heightened attention to object shape helps toddlers master object names rapidly

When adults go beyond correcting and actually explain, toddlers are more likely to move toward conventional word meanings.

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Semantic development:
emergentist coalition model

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word learning strategies EMERGE out of children's efforts to decipher language

children draw on a COALITION of cues (perceptual, social, linguistic) that shift in importance with age

*infants rely solely on perceptual/attentional cues
*toddlers increasingly attend to social cues (speaker's eye gaze, social contexts)
*preschoolers add linguistic cues (grammar, intonation)

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Grammatical development

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* telegraphic speech: creating two word phrases (when vocab is large enough)

* three word combos resemble knowledge of semantic relationships (following the order of SVO)

* as utterances (what you can say in one breath) grow long (MLU > 2.0), children begin acquiring grammatical forms (when they produce two morphemes long, going to start adding articles, prepositions, and inflection)

* errors as evidence of rule formation and acquisition of regular forms (overregularization: using rule in places when they shouldn't be using the rule. I ran to the store --> "I runned to the store" --> I ran to the store)

* semantic bootstrapping (know the meaning and where to put it in a sentence), role of input (how parents speak to child has an impact; recasts: correcting them or expansions: inc complexity — "I gotten new red shoes." "Yes, you got a pair of new red shoes"), language making capacity (LMC: children have innate set of COGNITIVE skills that help them learn language)

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Grammatical development: correct order of the typical appearance of more complex grammatical forms?

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negatives: nonexistence ("No cookie", "all gone crackers"), rejection ("No take bath"), and denial ("That not my kitty"

questions: correct question form appears first for yes/no and later for wh- question constructions

connectives: AND, THEN, WHEN, BECAUSE, SO, OR, IF, BUT

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Pragmatic development

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Conversational skills:
* turnabout: the speaker not only comments on what has just been said but also adds a request to get the partner to respond again
* shading: speaker initiates a change of topic gradually by modifying the focus of discussion
* illocutionary intent: what a speaker means to say, even if the form of utterance is not perfectly consistent with it (Mom says, "The garbage is beginning to smell.'" She really mean, "Take the garbage out!")
*referential communication skills: recognizing when message we receive are unclear so we can ask for more info

Sociolinguistic Understanding
speech registers: language adaptations to social expectations

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Metalinguistic awareness development

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the ability to think of language as a system

around age 4, children know that word labels are arbitrary and not part of the objects to which they refer

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Defining Bilingualism: controversies

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really complicated to define bilingualism…usually defined as having comparable linguistic skills in two or more languages

* receptive (can understand but not speak) vs. productive (can't understand but can speak) — linguistic skill
* simultaneous (exposed to 2 languages since birth) vs. sequential (acquired english by 7)— how it was acquired
* additive (Montreal: add French to English in school) vs. subtractive (America: replaced English with Spanish)—relation between heritage and societal language
* dual language learners: children who are acquiring two languages (tends to refer to simultaneous bilingualism)
* second language learners: (sequential)
* semilingualism: children don't have either of the languages developed (bizarre concept...negative perception of bilingualism…what is perfect language? what is the standard?)

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Theories of bilingual first language development

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if exposed to two languages from 0-3 years: simultaneous bilingual (talking about bilingual first language development)

unitary system hypothesis:
children begin with a hybrid system (called LX)
branches off into adult L1 and adult L2 — must separate, so it's different form monolingual (this is why there is a myth that states children get confused)

dual system hypothesis: (most researchers agree with)
begin with two separate linguistic systems. child L1 and L2 that feed into each other
turn into adult L1 and L2 that feed into each other

* greater individual variability compared to monolingual development

* Important factors to consider: amount and quality of input, societal attitudes, opportunities for use


In classrooms where both Spanish and English are integrated into the curriculum, U.S. minority students acquire speaking and reading skills in the second language more easily.

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Sequential bilingual development

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similarities:
processes and underlying language learning mechanisms (i.e need for communication, early language as a bootstrap)
major tasks: break into speech stream etc

differences:
more developed cognitive skills
2nd language can be a bootstrap
however, reduced opportunities for use and reduced input
individual differences are greater and more salient (personality, sociability…a social kid might not care if others don't use the same language)

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code switching

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Producing utterance in one language that contains one or more "guest" words from the other—without violating the grammar of either language
fluent bilinguals tend to code switch more…denotes high control of language

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Williams syndrome (from the online quiz)

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really oriented toward the social world
have unusual vocabs

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Deaf children (from the online quiz)

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deaf infants begin to babble at the same age as other infants, but will stop babbling if not exposed to speech or sign language.

a deaf child whose parents insist on verbal communication will invent their own gesture based language system (homesign) —supports the nativist theory of language development