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95 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Genetic & Environmental Influences:
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Current models propose that genetic and environmental variables transact over time. It is suggested that environment affects outcomes more significantly in the early years than in later adulthood (e.g. environ affects IQ in childhood but not adolescence).
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Urie Bronfenbrenner’s 5 levels of environmental influence:
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Microsystem: everyday environment (home, school, work) Consists of bi-directional relationships with parents, siblings, teachers, friends…
Mesosystem: interactions or links b/t Microsystems (parents meet teacher) Exosystem: the relationship b/t two or more settings at least one of which doesn’t contain the person (parent’s work affecting their bx w/ child) Macrosystem: includes influences of culture, religion, the economy and political systems. Chronosystem: addresses the role of the passage of time in the person’s life. Encompasses familial change (births) and societal change (wars). |
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Critical Periods:
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a specific time during an organism’s life span when it is most sensitive to environmental influence or stimulation. A specific structure or phenomenon must occur during this period or it will not occur at all (certain organs must form during 1st eight wks). Embryo is most vulnerable to teratogens during this Critical Period. Conrad Lorenz found that ducklings will imprint during the critical period of 12-17 hrs after birth
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Sensitive Periods:
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used in the study of human development, particularly cognitive and emotional development, instead of Critical Periods. During a Sensitive Period stimulation and learning has more of an impact than at any other time. (e.g. learning another language as a child). However, children can still learn languages later, it just requires more effort.
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Heredity:
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Genes & chromosomes transmit heredity characteristics. From conception each human cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes on which there are 1000s of genes composed of DNA & RNA & contain the genetic code. RNA also has role in memory.
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Genotype:
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the genetic makeup: expressed & unexpressed characteristics
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Phenotype:
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observable characteristics of a person
22 pairs of chromosomes are autosomes and 1 pair sex chromosomes 6% of the children born in USA have physical or mental disabilities |
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Klinefelter’s Syndrome:
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only in men (XXY), taller, 90 IQ, abnorm 2nd sex char
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Turner’s Syndrome:
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only in women, no X (X0) normal IQ, abnorm 2nd sex char
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Down’s Syndrome:
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3 chromes on 21, mental ret, broad skull, slant eyes
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Phenylketonuria(PKU)
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affects metabolism can result in mental deficiency
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Hemophilia
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excessive bleeding, found mostly in males, need transfusions
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Sickle Cell Anemia
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1 out of every 500 African Americans has sickle cell anemia. 1 out of every 12 are carriers, pain/stunt growth/infect, transfusions needed
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Germinal Period:
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conception to 2 wks where zygote rapidly divides and implants itself on the uterus wall.
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Embryonic Period:
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from 2 wks to 8-12 wks. Major organ sys & structures dev. Birth defects occur here. Most vulnerable to teratogenic agents.
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Fetal Period:
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from 8-12 wks til birth. Rapid growth and complexity of organs & other sys (nails, lashes). Growth is cephalocaudal, (top down)
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Maternal Factors in Prenatal Dev. Nutrition:
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Malnutrition is worst while fetus is in utero when sig brain and physical growth takes place.
Alcohol: FAS = delayed growth, phys deformities, delayed motor dev, low IQ, lx disabilities, short attention span, irritability and hyperactivity. Cocaine: spont. abortion, premature, low birth weight, neuro probs, small head. Babies are unresponsive emotionally and cognitively. Later on probs w/ org. lang skills, emot attach. Nicotine: infant death, low birth weight, in children poor atten spans, hyperactivity, low IQ, percpet-motor probs. |
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Moro Reflex:
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involves the baby extending the arms, legs, fingers and arching the back in response to being startled.
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Rooting Reflex:
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when the baby turns its head and opens it mouth to begin sucking after its cheek has been stroked by a finger or nipple.
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Babinksi Reflex:
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the baby spreads out the toes and twists its foot when its foot is stroked.
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Grasp Reflex:
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the baby makes a firm fist around objects placed in its hand
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Touch and Pain:
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touch 1st sense to develop and most mature. Infants feel pain on the 1st day of life and b/c more sensitive after delivery
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Taste:
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newborns prefer sweet (like mama’s milk) over sour or bitter
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Hearing:
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well developed at birth & acute before. Can distinguish sounds.
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Smell:
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well developed, newborns can tell mother’s milk smell from others
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Vision:
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not good at birth (narrow peripheral) but dev quick b/t 2-10 wks, color bad til 4mo, 20/200 at birth then 20/20 b/t 6mo & 2 yr, they like faces
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Motor Development:
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Head erect (6 wks)
Rolling over (2-3 mo) Sitting alone (6-7 mo) Crawling (7-8 mo) Stand w/ support (7-8 mo) Standing alone (11 mo) 1st step/walking alone (11-13) Walking up steps (16 mo) |
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Brain Development:
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Brain develops faster than any other part of the body during the prenatal period through the first 2 yrs. At birth the brain is 25-35% of its adult size, by 2 yo its about 75% and by 5 about 90%.
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Language Development:
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Crying: newborn’s only comm pitch & intensities signal hunger, sleepiness & anger.
Cooing: (6 wks – 2 mo) includes squeals, gurgles, “ahh” & laughing. Babbling: (6-10 mo) consonant vowel strings “ma-ma” Word Comprehension: (9-10 mo) understand name or “no” Echolalia: (9-10 mo) imitate sounds w/ no comprehension. Holophrasic Speech: (12-18 mo) use a phoneme or morpheme to express a thought. 18 mo = 50 words. Telegraphic Speech: (18-24 mo) putting 2 words together to express 1 idea. 24 mo = 200 words. |
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Piaget’s Stage Theory:
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used an idiographic approach (intense study of a few kids). Stated that we have an innate capacity to adapt to the environ. Also, we possess innate, genetic intellectual capabilities that make growth of abstract thought possible. Epigenesis: development occurs in stages w/ each built on mastery of the previous. (Peers important) (Constructivism)
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Organization:
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increasingly complex sys of knowledge. Kids use mental reps of reality Schemata (organized patterns of bx for specific sit.)
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Adaptation:
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how we deal w/ new information & change our Schemata
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Assimilation:
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incorporating a new exp into an existing cog structure/schema
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Accommodation:
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changing a cog structure/schema to fit in new information
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Sensorimotor:
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(0-2) Birth until significant lang acquisition. Infants learn thr sensory observation & gain control of motor functions.
Object Permanence: (3 mo – 8 mo) objects exist indep of infants interactions. Symbolic Representation: w/ lang near end of stage comes symbolic rep. |
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Preoperational:
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(2-7) increased use of symbols and lang.
Intuitive thinking: no logic Egocentrism: can’t take perspective of others. Phenomenalistic Causality: magical thinking Animism: psy attributes for inanimate obj. Irreversibility: inability to mentally undo s/t. (clay into ball then log) Centration: only focus on one thing (mom can’t be a sister also) |
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Concrete Operational:
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(7-11) act on real or imagined concrete objects.
Operational Thought: logic, serialize. Conservation: volume constant. |
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Formal Operational:
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(11-18) hypothetical thinking, deductive & inductive reasoning.
Metacognition: think about thinking & compare values. |
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Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory of Cognition:
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cognitive development results from social interaction. Higher cog functions (lang, thinking, memory) begin w/ relationships the child has w/ others, which are then internalized. Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky felt development was too complex to be divided into stages and saw a bigger role for parents, but both felt peer influence was significant.
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Zone of Proximal Development:
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the distance b/t what a child can do on her own and what she can do with adult or peer collaboration. Instruction should be targeted towards this zone.
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Scaffolding:
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teachers adj help based on the child’s performance until she is able to complete the task independently then teacher withdraws assistance
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Reciprocal Teaching:
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involves dialogue b/t the teacher and students (e.g. discussion on different problem solving strategies rather than just “correct” one)
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Piaget’s Theory of Moral Dev:
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moral development linked to cognitive development, kids that have the cognitive ability to see things from more than one perspective will make sounder moral judgements. Moral reasoning develops in two stages: the morality of constraint stage & the morality of cooperation stage.
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Heteronomous Morality:
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(5-10 yo) In this 1st stage the morality of constraint dominates. Rigid thinking occurs, w/ kids thinking that there is only one way to look at a moral issue, they feel rules can’t be changed, are decided by authority figures and must be followed w/o question; and any offense deserves punishment (unless they themselves are the offenders).
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Autonomous Morality:
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(10+) In the 2nd stage kids can see more than one point of view. Not just one right or wrong. They look at the situation & intent behind bx. Rules are flexible, agreed upon by others & can be changed.
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Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning:
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Like Piaget, he thought people’s moral judgment is related to their cognitive development. People arrive at moral judgments on their own, rather than internalizing parental or societal standards. 3 general stages, each divided into 2 substages (6 total)
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Preconventional Morality:
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(4-10) Morality is self-centered in self-interest
(Stage 1) Punishment/Obedience: focus on avoiding punishment (Stage 2) Instumental Hedonism: obedience in hopes of rewards |
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Conventional Morality:
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(10+) Morals shift; self-centered to other-centered
(Stage 3) Good Boy/Good Girl: gaining approval through obedience (Stage 4) Law & Order: focus on one’s duty, maintaining social order |
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Postconventional Morality:
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(13+, yng adult, never) Morals are fair & just
(Stage 5) Morality of Contract, Indiv Rights & Democratically Accepted Laws: valuing the will of the majority & societal welfare (Stage 6) Morality of Indiv Principles of Conscience: internal standards |
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Carol Gilligan:
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criticized Kohlberg for using only men and boys in his studies and giving a higher place to traditional male values (justice and fairness) rather than female values (compassion and caring). No evidence.
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Justice Perspective:
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males generally prefer this perspective which emphasizes fairness.
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Caring Perspective:
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central conflict for women is the conflict b/t their own needs and the needs of others. Women think less about justice and more about their responsibilities to specific people.
Level 1: Orientation of Individual. Survival: the woman focused on only what is best for her. Level 2: Goodness as Self-Sacrifice: the woman sacrifices her own needs to meet others’ wants & needs. What others think of her is central to morals Level 3: Morality of Nonviolence: the woman believes that no one should be hurt including herself & can exper. moral equality b/t herself and others |
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Freud and Erikson:
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Freud’s theory focused on childhood & was organized around his libido theory, which corresponds to particular areas of the body assoc w/ eroticism. Erikson’s theory included adult development.
1st yr (Oral) = Trust vs Mistrust / Hope 1-3 (Anal) = Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt / Will 3-5/6 (Phallic) = Initiative vs Guilt / Purpose 5/6-12 (Latency) = Industry vs Inferiority / Competence 12-18 (Genital) = Identity vs Role Confusion / Fidelity 18-35 Intimacy vs Isolation / Love 35-60 Generativity vs Stagnation / Care 60+ Integrity vs Despair / Wisdom |
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Margaret Mahler:
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theory described the 6 stages of separation individuation process. Separation is becoming a discrete physical entity by physically distancing. Individuation is becoming a psy independent person which involves maturation of independent ego functions.
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Normal Infantile Autism:
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(1st mo) infant unaware of external world, however, research has not support this (infants have awareness).
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Symbiosis:
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(2-4 mo) infant feels that she and mom are 1 entity
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Differentiation:
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(5-10 mo) child able to distinguish b/t self and others objects, which ushers in Stranger Anxiety (child more aware of unfamiliar)
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Practicing:
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(10-16 mo) child discovers she can physically separate herself from mom, by crawling, then walking, which creates Separation Anxiety.
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Rapproachment:
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(16-24 mo) increased need for mother to share in child’s new skills and experiences and a great need for love.
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Obj. Constancy:
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(2-3 yrs) keep mom in mind when gone & unify good/bad
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Levinson:
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In theory, Season’s of a Man’s Life he stated that development alternates b/t transition and stability (Interviewed 40 men). Criticized b/c he didn’t include low SES & women, who were to fulfill husband’s dreams.
Early Adult Transition: (17-22) changes childhood sense of self and begins to make adult choices. Entering the Adult World: (22-28) consolidates choices made earlier Age 30 Transition: (28-32) may be stressful b/c person feels little time to establish patterns of adult life and may reconsider previous choices. Settling Down: (33-40) settle into adult commitments Mid-Life Transition: (40-45) shift from time since birth to time left to live Middle Adulthood: (45-50) person changes early adulthood perspective and may make major adjustments. Age 50 Transition: makes changes for this decade of life Late Adulthood: involves developmental tasks such as retirement, death |
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Attachment:
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appears to be active, reciprocal and enduring relationship
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Conrad Lorenz:
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non-human primate have instinctual attachment bx as evidenced by ducklings attaching to him 12-17 hrs after birth.
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Harry Harlow:
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did studies in the 50’s on monkeys where surrogate wire and cloth monkeys were used. Monkeys preferred cloth mothers even if fed by wire. Contact Comfort: pleasurable tactile sensations in attachment. Monkeys in isolation during 1st few mo show autistic-like social/sexual bx.
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John Bowlby:
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formulated attachment theory, stating there is evolutionary basis for attachment so adults protect the young (newborns have verbal & nonverbal bx (crying, clinging, smiling) to elicit nurturing responses.
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Protest:
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when initially separated child protests/calls out & looks for adult
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Despair:
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as separation continues child is hopeless mother will return
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Detachment:
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child emotionally separates self from mom, child indifferent when mom returns. Rene Spitz: Analytic Depression occurs to 6-8 mo yo
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Mary Ainsworth:
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attachment b/t infant and caregiver begins at birth and b/c more important from 6mo-1yr (at time of stranger & separation anx). By 1 yr the Strange Situation Procedure can measure the quality of attachment. Looks at infant bx w/strange room & adult, & mom leaving.
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Secure Attachment:
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(65%) babies are warm and responsive. When exp to stranger seek closeness w/ mom & show mod distress upon separation & greet w/ enthusiasm upon return (due to sensitive, responsive caregiving)
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Avoidant Attachment:
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(20%) babies do not seek closeness w/ mom & rarely cry when she leaves & ignore upon return. May prefer stranger over mom. (due to either aloofness/distance or intrusiveness/overstimulation).
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Ambivalent (Resistant) Attachment:
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(10%) babies are clingy and b/c upset when mom leaves & are happy upon return but resist mom’s comforting bx. No exploring & appear angry (due to inconsistent/insensitive caregiving)
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Disorganized-Disoriented:
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no clear strategy, may exhibit fear (abuse issues)
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Diana Baumrind:
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identified 3 major patterns of parenting:
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Authoritarian Parents:
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expect unquestioned obedience, are demanding, controlling, threatening & punishing. Parents tend to be more detached, less warm. Kids are frequently moody, irritable, withdrawn, distrustful, & aggressive & have bx disorders. Baumrind: “conflicted-irritable”
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Permissive Parents:
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"Permissive-indifferent" set few limits, do little monitoring, are detached & uninvolved. Kids have poor self-control, are demanding, incompliant, & poor interpersonal skills.
"Permissive-indulgent": loving/emotionally available but few limits/demands. Kids are impulsive, immature, out of control. Baurmind: Indulgent “impulsive aggressive” |
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Authoritative Parents:
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are caring & emot available yet set firm fair limits. They provide structure & have reasonable expectations. Kids = competent, confident, independent, cooperative & good socially Baumrind: “energetic-friendly” Critique: parental style is reaction to the child. (cross-cultural: rejection/hostility bad)
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Gender Role Development:
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sex refers to the bio aspects of being male/ female. Gender refers to cultural & individual meanings of male/female
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Stages of Gender Role Development:
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Gender Roles: (birth throughout life) refers to the societal expectations for approp male/female bx.
Gender Identity: (starts at 18 mo but attained by 3 yrs) refers to the indiv perception of themself as male or female. Gender Constancy: (5-6 yo) knowing gender doesn’t change w/dress or bx. |
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Development of Racial Awareness:
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b/t the ages of 3-4 kids become aware of social diff. based on race/ethnicity (at 4 prefer same-race playmates)
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Social Play:
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has 4 stages:
Solitary Play: (up to 2 yo) the child plays alone w/ different toys and makes no effort to engage other children. Parallel Play: (up to 2 yo) child plays independently but next to other kids, using similar toys. Associative Play: (2-3) interacts w/ other kids and shares, but no established roles. Cooperative Play: (2-3) part of a group w/ a common goal & has a role |
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Cognitive Play:
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Piaget stated there are 4 levels:
Repetitive Play: simple repetitive muscular movements (rolling a ball) Constructive Play: using materials to construct or create s/t (block tower) Imaginative Play: involves fantasy & drama, taking on pretend roles (Batman). Serves a crucial role in allowing kids to try out new roles and master difficult feelings. Formal Games with Rules: (4-7) rules fluctuate & are egocentrically motivated. (7-11) rules followed more carefully (adolescence) rules seen as absolute. |
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Delinquency & Aggression:
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Nature of teens relationship w/ parents key in delinquency. For boys unhappy intact homes worse than broken homes likely b/c dad’s aggressive bx.
Patterson’s Coercion Model of Aggression: 3 steps lead to delinquency: 1st: child learns to be aggressive by observing coercive/antisocial bx from parents, which leads to conduct probs. 2nd: child experiences academic failure and peer rejection 3rd: child exp a depressed mood and is likely to join a deviant peer group. |
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The Grieving Process:
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Numbness: feel little emotion, other than emptiness denial may be present.
Yearning: feelings of distress emerge, including intense longings, guilt, anger & resentment. Disorganization & Despair: life loses meaning, apathetic feelings, submissive & lacking energy. Resolution & Reorganization: acceptance of loss both intellectually and emotionally & building of new identity. |
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Kubler-Ross:
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five states when facing own death.
Denial/disbelief Anger Bargaining Depression Acceptance. |
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Temperament:
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most theories are rooted in biological differences. Many believe temperament is present at birth or develops in 1st 6 mo.
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Thomas & Chess (1977)
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have 3 major categories in which 65% of babies fall into:
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Easy Temperament:
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(40%) children are regular, adaptable, mildly intense style that is positive and responsive.
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Difficult Temperament:
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(10%) children are moody, easily frustrated, tense and overreact to most situations.
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Slow-To-Warm-Up Infants:
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(15%) children are mild in responding, are somewhat shy and withdrawn and need time to adjust to new experiences or people.
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Goodness-Of-Fit:
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thought to be one of the greatest influences on the child’s development, refers to how the child’s temperament and environment match up. (caregiver parenting style)
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Development of emotional expression:
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Birth: 3 emotional states: distress, contentment, interest
6 mo: contentment, joy, surprise, interest, sadness, disgust, and anger 7-9 mo: emotions used to get her way (smile, pout) 1 yr: Social Referencing: cues from mom to deal w/affective uncertainty 2 yr: self-consciousness, embarrassment, empathy, envy Preschool: learning to regulate emotions, Object Constancy is important for self-soothing and to reduce/tolerate anxiety due to separation w/ caretaker. There is strong support for emotions being innate (babies mimic adult facial expressions) and cross-cultural. Emotions originate in the Subcortical Limbic System and evolved prior to thought. There are seven culturally universal emotions (fear, anger, disgust, surprise, joy, shame, contempt, sadness & interest) love & remorse = higher cortical processes |
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Risk Factors:
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there are 3 levels of risk factors: The level of the Individual (defective genes, difficult temperament) The level of the Family (mentally ill parent, child abuse) The level of the Community (discrimination, poverty). An Adversity Index can show the build up of risk factors.
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Poverty:
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brings biological risks (poor nutrition, Etoh, prenatal care) Poverty is associated with 50% greater risk of prenatal & postnatal infant deaths. Can lead to attachment issues b/c of parental responsiveness.
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Protective Factors:
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Physical health, high IQ high SES, the ability to find and use an external support system. Garmezy: personality of the child, supportive family environ, external support system for child’s coping skills
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