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189 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Sensitive Periods
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A time in the early stages of an organism’s life during which it displays a heightened sensitivity to certain environmental stimuli, and develops in particular ways due to experiences at this time. If the organism does not receive the appropriate stimulus during this “critical period”, it may be difficult, ultimately less successful, or even impossible, to develop some functions later in life
Related to learning language 18-24 months= vocabulary growth spurt 6 years= 10,000 words If children aren’t exposed to language during these critical periods, they likely will not develop a full vocabulary or entire language skill set |
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Interaction among Developmental Domains
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To what extent do developments in different domains such as physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development proceed separately and to what extent do they influence each other?
ex: physical changes on tail-ends of normative development. How does that affect you emotionally? ex: SES- fast-food availability- obesity perhaps? |
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Evolutionary Adaptation/Adaptive Value
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Individuals best adapted to their environments survive to reproduce. Their genes are passed to later generations. These genes survive because they have value to survival.
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Developmentally Appropriate Measurement -
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Measures used must be directly relevant to the hypothesis being tested. In addition, they must be appropriate to the ages being tested.
Ex: “wug” test, theory of mind- false belief problems |
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Nature:
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Biological endowment, the genes we receive from our parent. Genetic inheritance influences every aspect of our make-up, from broad characteristics such as physical appearance, personality, intellectual ability, and mental health to specific preferences.
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Nurture controversy
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wide range of environment, both physical and social that influence our development, including the womb in which we spend the prenatal period, home, school, communities we live in, people we interact with.
-controversy between the two is that for human development it is neither one OR the other. It is a mixture of both (page 12 of text). |
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Active vs. passive role of child-
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children are active in their development, as seen in attentional patterns, language use, hobbies, etc. Their activeness increases as they grow. Their choices can have a huge impact on their future.
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Normative approach vs. individual differences approach-
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Is there one universal course of development that characterizes all children or where do they differ?
-Normative- Age related averages, and measurements of large numbers of people. |
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Behaviorism vs. Social learning theory
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Behaviorism- Watson and Skinner, rewards and punishment. They assumed children were passive in their development. Pavlov- classical conditioning, the pairing of stimuli to elicit a desired reaction
vs. Social Learning- children learn by watching parents and others |
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Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory
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Child development is affected by multiple, interacting, levels of their environments, from the immediate settings of family and school to broad cultural values and programs.
microsystems: directly affect the child’s development (individual, immediate family, child care center, neighborhood play area)-->mesosystems- interactions within the microsystem (ex: mom’s interaction with our day care teacher) ----> exosystems : factors that do not influence child directly but affect the child’s microsystem (extended family, community health services, work place, friends and neighbors )---> macrosystems: broader societal laws and values that affect all other systems (values, laws, customs). Brofenbrenner’s chronosystem --Time, Current Year, History, Ex:2011 - children are both products and producers of their environment. |
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Hypothesis
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a prediction often drawn from theory. Educated guess.
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Reliability vs validity
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Reliability – the degree to which independent measurements of a given behavior are consistent
and Validity – (internal): the degree to which a test or experiment measures what it intends to measure. (external): is it generalizable? |
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Correlational design vs experimental desgin
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Correlational design – gather information without altering subject’s experience, and examines relationship among variables. NO CAUSATION. Just looking at the relationship between two variables.
vs. Experimental design – investigator randomly assigns subjects to treatment conditions. DOES study cause and effect. |
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Independent and dependent
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Independent variable – gets altered to make the different conditions
and Dependent variable – gets observed to tell if the independent variable has no effect |
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Longitudinal design
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Involves following a group of children over a substantial period of time (2 + years) and observe changes and continuities in these children’s development at regular intervals during that time
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Cross-sectional design-
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compares children of different ages on a given behavior, ability, or characteristic, with all the children being studied at roughly the same time. very little time and expense goes into these studies.
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Cohort-sequential design-
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combines cross sectional and longitudinal. Different aged people are studied over time.
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Microgenetic design-
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Specifically designed to provide an in-depth depiction of processes that produce changes. Design to repeatedly test the same children over time. The children are followed very intensively over a short transitional period of development, allows you to get closer to seeing the actual process by which developmental change occurs.
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Phenotype-
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characteristics that show
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Genotype-
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genetic make-up, specific chromosomes for a characteristic
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DNA-
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deoxyribonucleic acid, carried by the chromosomes.
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Genes-
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determine the characteristics
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Chromosomes-
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long, threadlike molecules of DNA
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Alleles
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2 or more different forms of a gene or genes
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Zygote-
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fertilized egg. (conception to week 3- lasts until the zygote is implanted in the uterine wall.)
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Embryo-
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name for the developing organism in its 3rd to 8th week of prenatal development. Following implantation, major development occurs in all the organs and systems of the body. Development takes place through the processes of cell division, cell migration, cell differentiation, and cell death, as well as hormonal influences.
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Fetus-
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9th week until birth. Continued development of physical structures and rapid growth of the body. Increasing levels of behavior, sensory experience, and learning.
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Teratogens-
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environmental hazards that can cause damage during the early/sensitive periods of development. They are hard to identify, and may even result in miscarriage. There IS a dose response relation.
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Behavior genetics (identical and fraternal twins)-
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how variation in behavior and development results from genes and environment. Many traits are MULTIFACTORAL. Family and especially twin studies really help with this (even better if they were adopted in different homes).
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Norm of reaction-
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differences of genes because of the environment.
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Canalization
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heredity restricts development of characteristics to 1 or only a few outcomes. Governed by genotype and only extreme conditions will alter the phenotype pattern for an attribute.
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Gene-environment correlations-
active, passive, evocative |
heredity influences environment that the person is exposed.
-active- aka “niche picking.” child selects good actions for themselves. -passive- parents create environment that THEY themselves are predisposed to. ex: parent is an avid reader. the child then has an environment that is filled with books and a parent who can teach them to read well. -evocative- kind of half way between active passive. Own innate qualities interact with environment ex: a child who is musically talented’s parents enroll them in music classes |
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Reflexes
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nnate, fixed patterns of action that occur in response to particular stimulation. Some responsive reflexes, such as rooting and sucking, have clear adaptive value.
-Rooting: round mouth to prepare to breast feed -Sucking -Palmar grasp -Stepping reflex -Moro - when neck is not supported, thrust arms out and then close. -Tonic Neck- leg up arm out - Babinsky- spread toes out when stroke feet - Swimming- Infants will float to surface belly up |
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Classical conditioning-
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A form of learning that consists of associating an initially neutral stimulus with a stimulus that always evokes a reflexive response. •Classical conditioning involves an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that reliably elicits a reflexive, unlearned response – an unconditioned response (UCR). •Learning or conditioning can occur if an initially neutral stimulus, the conditioned stimulus (CS), repeatedly occurs just before the unconditioned stimulus. •Gradually, the originally reflexive response – the learned or conditioned response (CR) – becomes paired with the initially neutral stimulus.
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Instrumental/operant conditioning
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Involves learning the relation between one’s own behavior and the consequences that result. •Most instrumental conditioning research with infants involves positive reinforcement, in which a reward reliably follows a behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. ex: Allowance! or a speeding ticket.
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Habituation-
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nvolves repeatedly presenting an infant with a given stimulus until the response declines.
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Dishabituation-
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responding to old stimuli as it if were new.
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Imitation
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Learning by copying the behavior of another person. Also called modeling or observational learning.
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Modeling-
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imitation
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Violation-of-expectancy-
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procedure: infants are shown an event that should evoke surprise or interest if it violates something that the infant knows or assumes to be true.
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Cephalo-caudal trend-
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Glossary p. 2 in textbook. pattern of growth in which areas near the head develop earlier than areas farther from the head.
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Proximo-distal trend-
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development starts from the middle of the body and extends outward from there.
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Vision
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The sharpness of infants’ visual discrimination develops so rapidly that it approaches that of adults by age 8 months and reaches full adult acuity by 6 years of age. In addition, very young infants have limited color vision, although by 2-3 months of age their color vision is similar to that of adults. 8-7 months for depth perception.
3 weeks • Poor contrast sensitivity • Prefers large simple patterns 2 months • Can detect detail in complex patterns • Scans internal features of patterns 4 months •Can detect patterns even if boundaries are not really present 12 months •Can detect objects even if two-thirds of drawing is missing |
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Hearing
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Although the human auditory system is relatively well developed at birth, hearing does not approach adult levels until age 5 or 6.
4 – 7 months Sense of musical phrasing 6 – 8 months • “Screen out” sounds from non-native languages • Recognize familiar words, natural phrasing in native language 8 – 9 months Detect syllables that often occur together in the same word |
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Taste and Smell
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Sensitivity to taste and smell develops before birth
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Touch
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Oral exploration the first few months
- 4 months children gain greater control over hand and arm movements and manual exploration gradually takes precedence over oral exploration. |
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Visual cliff-
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an apparatus used to assess an infant's perception of depth, comprised of a thick pane of glass that covers a shallow drop and a deep drop. Surfaces of both are covered with the same chequered pattern; however children of six months and older will not explore the deep
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Intermodal perception-
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The combining of information from 2 or more sensory systems/senses is present from very early in life.
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Piaget’s cognitive-developmental theory-
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constructivist because it depicts children as actively constructing knowledge for themselves in response to their experience, The theory posits that children learn through two processes that are present from birth- assimilation and accommodation- and that they balance their contributions through a third process, equilibration. These processes produce continuities across development. This theory divides cognitive development into 4 broad stages: sensorimotor (birth to 2), preoperational (2 to 7), concrete operations (7 to 12), and formal operations (12 and beyond).
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Scheme/schema
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psychological structures. Equilibrium allows for organization. These are organized ways of making sense of experience. At first are action based and later move to a thinking level.
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Adaptation and organization-
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adaptation is the tendency to respond to the demands of environment to meet one’s goals. Organization is the tendency to integrate particular observations into coherent knowledge.
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Assimilation-
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process where people translate incoming information into form that fits concepts they already understand.
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accommodation-
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the process by which people adapt their current understandings in response to new
experiences. |
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equilibrium
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the process by which people balance assimilation and accommodation to create stable understanding.
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Piaget’s stages/periods of development=
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sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
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-sensorimotor-
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birth to 2 years; infant’s intelligence develops and is expressed through their sensory and motor abilities. They use these abilities to perceive and explore the world around them, gaining information about the objects and people in it and constructing rudimentary forms of fundamental concepts such as time, space, and causality. Throughout the sensorimotor period, infants live largely in the here and now: their intelligence is bound to their immediate perceptions and actions
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-preoperational-
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age 2-7 years; toddlers and preschoolers become able to represent their experiences in language and mental imagery. This allows them to remember the experiences for longer periods of time and to form more sophisticated concepts. However, as suggested by the term preoperational , Piaget’s theory emphasizes young children’s inability to perform mental operations, that is forms of reasoning that are part of an organized system of mental activities. Lacking such well-organized systems, children are unable to form certain ideas, such as the idea of pouring water from one glass into a different shaped glass does not change the amount of water.(Conservation) (centration)
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-concrete operational
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age 7-12 years; children can reason logically about concrete objects and events, for example, they understand that pouring one glass into a different shape glass leaves the same amount of water unchanged. However, they have difficulty thinking purely abstract terms and in generating scientific experiments to test their beliefs.(decentration)
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-formal operational-
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12 years and beyond; children can think deeply not only about concrete events but also about abstractions and purely hypothetical situations. They also can perform systematic scientific experiments and draw appropriate conclusions from them, even when the conclusions differ from their prior beliefs.
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Object permanence-
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understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight
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A-not-B error-
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tendency to reach where objects have been found before rather than to where they were last hidden.
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Conservation-
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being able to logically determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment of the container, shape, or apparent size. ex: same size glasses filled with water, pour water into tall narrow glass, pre-operational children will say tall glass has more water
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Perception bound thought
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categorizing and making sense of things by how they look/what they do. This is why young children fail the conservation task- the tall glass LOOKS like it has more
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Centration-
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tendency to focus on a single, perceptually striking feature of an object or event.
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Decentration
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eing able to focus on more than one quality of an object or event, ex: height and width of a glass, not either or. Aren’t centered on 1 thing/object. Account for all parts.
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Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development-
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Development is continuous. Humans learn through interactions with older, more experienced others within a particular culture. It includes the next four concepts:
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Zone of proximal development
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the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help. Vygotsky stated that a child follows an adult's example and gradually develops the ability to do certain tasks without help or assistance.
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Intersubjectivity
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shared understanding that people share during communication. Joint attention- adult looks at object first, child looks at adult. THEN child looks at object.
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Social Scaffolding
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social and instructional support for students learning new concepts, comparable to structures erected alongside newly constructed buildings. The scaffolding supports the construction (the introduction of new material) and is taken away after completion (or when the lesson is understood.) More competent people provide temp. framework that supports child’s thinking. Involves asking many question
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-Private speech-
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internalization of thought. Vygotsky’s second phase of the internalization-of-thought process. Children develop their self-regulation and problem-solving abilities by telling themselves aloud what to do, as much as their parents did in the first stage.
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Store model-
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Portrays memory as occurring in 3 stages. 1. encoding: sensory info is transformed to enter in and be retained by the memory system. Unattended info is quickly lost. 2. storage: process by which we retain info for use later in time 3. retrieval: how we recover info and become consciously aware of it.
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Levels of Processing Model-
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shallow vs. deep (ex. flashed words “chair, BRAIN, and gun” then asked them question which required them to respond with a description of either visual, acoustic, or semantic.) Most shallow processing is automatic encoding.
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Sensory memory
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All the info entering through our senses goes here. Has a large capacity, short durations. Quick and efficient interaction with the environment. Unattended info is quickly lost. Sensory info is visual or auditory. Sensory memory formation is automatic.
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Working memory-
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(aka, short-term memory), information is actively worked on, lasts about 30 seconds unless actively working on it, unrehearsed information is lost much more quickly if not actively used.
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Long term memory- two categories
Explicit (declarative) Implicit (procedural) |
Explicit (declarative): processed by hippocampus, episodic memories
Implicit (procedural): happens by itself, don’t have to remind yourself how to do it. (ex. Running or breathing) mostly processed in cerebellum, includes motor skills, actions, and basic procedures. things you KNOW but don’t know how you know them. Also includes things you have been conditioned to (thinking mushrooms are gross because everyone in your family thinks they are gross) |
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Encoding
Automatic, Effortful |
visual, acoustic, and semantic (encoding of meaning like the meaning of words)
Automatic: automatically process and encode things like space, time, frequency Effortful: processing information that require conscious effort to encode. ex: the information on the study guide for the test |
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Effortful processing-
rehearsal, chunking, elaboration |
Rehearsal- Keep repeating the word until it gets into memories.
-Chunking- grouping the words -Elaboration- Focus on meaning of to encode it into long term memory. Techniques such as meaning, associations to other info you have already encoded, self-referent processing |
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Encoding specificity principle-
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It is best to retrieve info in the same place you received it or under the same conditions (emotionally) where you received it
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Phonology-
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Rules about structure and sequence of speech sounds- Specific sounds
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Semantics-
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Vocabulary - words and word combinations for concepts- meaning
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Grammar-
syntax, morphology |
• Syntax - rules for sentences
• Morphology - grammatical markers- structure/word forms (ex: changing to past tense) |
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Pragmatics-
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every day uses of language for Appropriate and effective communication. for example, talking to a teacher differently than a friend
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Fast mapping
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children are rapidly able to learn words and their meanings based on how they are used and their context.
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Behaviorist perspective
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first perspective people had when they first learn to speak, babbling teaches them to use words when they hear the context it is being used in. Notion that children learn to speak because when children speak others reinforce these babbles/”words”. Not an accepted theory because children combine words/coin words such that they could not have had them reinforced/modeled. Kid’s learn to speak from elders. Exposure=learning.
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Protodeclarative and protoimperative-
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protodeclarative: gesture used to draw attention to an object such as pointing
protoimperative: gesture used to request object or action (raising arms in the air to get picked up) |
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Nativist perspective-
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There is something innate to humans that allows them to learn language quickly (language acquisition device) This is universal. Some evidence is that almost all children learn language if they are exposed to it, children learn new language better than adults, there are sensitive periods, and there are brain areas such as the Broca’s area that if damaged, make language acquisition difficult. Criticism: social context not taken into account, language is just the cognitive ability to learn and recognize patterns.
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Chomsky-
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believed that language was a biologically based accomplishment that was unique to humans. Argued the rules of grammar are too complex to be taught to or discovered, therefore they must be built in to the organism. Children are assisted in acquiring their native language by their inborn knowledge of the general form that languages can take. Because of this inborn knowledge, children require only minimal input to trigger language development; simply hearing others use language is enough to get it going.
¡ What is the evidence for Chomsky’s position? § Language development of deaf children § Language development in apes § Neurological evidence § Sensitive periods of language development |
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Comprehension vs. production-
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comprehension of language always precedes production of language
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Interactionist perspective
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Marriage of nativist and behaviorist views. Interactionist views maintain that virtually everything about language development is influenced by its communicative function. To begin with, children are motivated to interact with others, to communicate their own thoughts and feelings, and to understand what other people are trying to communicate to them. According to this position, children gradually discover the underlying regularities in language and its use by paying close attention to the multitude of clues available in the language they hear and the social context in which language is used. In a strong version of this view, language is basically a social skill. The properties of language Chomsky believed to be innate are instead mastered in the process of interacting with others. Language itself is properly thought of as a set of social conventions that enable people to communicate.
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Underextensions-
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using one word to apply to one thing. calling only your dog “dog” but not other dogs.
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Overextensions-
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using one word to refer to things other than the thing itself. like calling wolves, sheep, dogs, etc. all dogs.
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Overregularization
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saying runned instead of ran, applying more grammatical rules than are needed. Applying rules WITHOUT appropriate exceptions.
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Expansion:
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taking what the child says and expanding on it. like giving more of a description.
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Recast:
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correcting what the child says, usually grammatically.
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LAD (language acquisition device)-
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An innate self-contained language module that is separate from other aspects of cognitive functioning. It biologically prepares infants to learn rules of language through universal grammar.
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Universal grammar (associated with LAD)
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a set of highly abstract, unconscious rules that are common to all languages.
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Turnabout-
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conversational technique where you are turning the conversation to the other person, not just continuously one person talking. Commenting on what was said. For example, if a child says “let’s go to the park” a reply would be “Yes. Isn’t it a nice day out.” Shift from one person to another.
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Shading
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process of changing the conversational topic gradually. Shift from one subject to another.
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Illocutionary intent-
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saying something with a hidden meaning. example: “the trash is full” your intended meaning is “take the trash out”
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Phonemes and categorical speech perception-
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The perception of speech sounds as belonging to discrete categories. This phenomenon was studied through the use of phonemes b and p because they are on the same acoustic continuum. Infants can distinguish all the sounds between b and p but adults only hear a rapid switch from b to p.
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Metalinguistic awareness-
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Awareness of language as language. That language is a device for communication. Bilingual children develop this earlier than monolinguistic children.
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Motherese/child directed speech/infant directed talk
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high pitched talk that is directed at children. This speech is full of emotion and it is very exaggerated. Talk is slower and words are clearer and elongated. Speech suffused with affection. Common but not universal. Was changed to IDT from motherese because it was recognized that not only mothers use this speech style.
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Referential:
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speech strategy that analyzes the speech stream into individual phonetic elements and words; the first utterances of children who adopt this style tend to use isolated, often monosyllabic words
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Expressive:
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speech strategy that gives more attention to the overall sound of language – its rhythmic and intonational patterns – than to phonetic elements of which it is composed.
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Cooing
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the earliest form of vocal expression of infants, just vowel sounds
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Babbling:
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a little later they start repeating specific components of words, not just to get attention. precursor to language, repetitive consonants and vowels.
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Telegraphic speech-
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simple two words utterances ex: Give cup. Not grammatically correct but does convey meaning.
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Category hierarchies
superoridinate, basic, subordinate |
categories that are related by set – subset relations, such as animal/dog/poodle
- Superordinate – the most general level within a category hierarchy, such as “animal” in the animal/dog/poodle example. - Basic – the middle level, and often the first level learned, within a category hierarchy, such as “dog” in the animal/dog/poodle example. - Subordinate – the most specific level within a category hierarchy, such as “poodle in the animal/dog/poodle example |
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Theory of mind-
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Knowing that ones thoughts/ beliefs are different and separate then someone else's own thoughts/ beliefs. An organized, integrated understanding of how psychological processes such as intentions, desires, beliefs, perceptions, and emotions influence behavior.
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False belief problems
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tasks that test a child’s understanding that other people will act in accord with their own beliefs even when the child knows that those beliefs are incorrect. (Smarties box with pencils inside. Ask the child what is inside the box they will respond “smarties.” Ask the child to open the box and they see the pencils, then you ask if you showed your friend this box what would they think was inside. At this point the child will either be able to put themselves in their friend’s point of view by saying “smarties”, or use their own knowledge based on what they have seen and say “pencils.”
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Sociodramatic play
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Activities in which children enact minidramas with other children or adults, emerges at about 30 months (such as “mother comforting baby”)
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Egocentric representations
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coding of spatial locations relative to one’s own body, without regard to the surroundings. EX: An infant will continue to look for the chair to their right, even if they have been moved.
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Basic emotions-
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1. Happiness: appears through smiling and laughter (1st few weeks see smile in REM sleep, 6 weeks= social smile, 3-4 months= laughter, 1 year= deliberate social smile)
2. Anger: general distress. Is adaptive bc it attracts attention (4-6 mo) 3. Sadness: responses to pain, removal of toy, brief separation, less common than anger 4. Fear: 6 mo: stranger anxiety, secure base, approach and avoidance, appraisal of threat. |
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Attachment
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Is an emotional bond with a specific person that is enduring across space and time. Usually, attachments are discussed in regard to the relation between infants and specific caregivers, although they can also occur in adulthood.
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Attachment theory
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theory based on John Bowlby’s work that posits that children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments with caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their own survival.
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Stages of attachment
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Preattachement – (birth to 6 weeks) – In this phase, the infant produces innate signals, most notably crying, that summon caregivers, and the infant is comforted by the ensuing interaction.
- Attachment-in-the-making – (6 weeks to 6-8 months) – Infants begin to respond preferentially to familiar people, Typically they smile, laugh, or babble more frequently in the presence of the primary caregiver and are more easily soothed by that person. - Clear-cut attachment – (6-8 months to 1 ½ years of age) – infants actively seek contact with their regular caregivers. They happily greet their mother when she appears and, correspondingly, may exhibit separation anxiety or distress when she departs. - Reciprocal relationships – (1 ½ or 2 year of age on) – Toddlers’ rapidly increasing cognitive and language abilities enable them to understand their parents’ feelings, goals, and motives and to use this understanding to organize their efforts to be near their parents. |
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Four types of attachment:
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- Secure – a pattern of attachment in which infants or young children have high-quality, relatively unambivalent relationship with their attachment figure. In the strange situation, a securely attached infant, for example, may be upset when the caregiver leaves but may be happy to see the caregiver return, recovering quickly from any distress. When children are securely attached, they can use caregivers as a secure base for exploration.
- Insecure – a pattern of attachment in which infants or young children have a less positive attachment to their caregiver than do securely attached children. Insecurely attached children can be further classified o Avoidant – a type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children seem somewhat indifferent toward their caregiver and may even avoid the caregiver. In the strange situation, they seem indifferent toward their caregiver before the caregiver leaves the room and indifferent or avoidant when the caregiver returns. If they get upset when left alone, they are as easily comforted by a stranger as by a parent. o Resistant or Ambivalent – a type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children are clingy and stay close to their caregiver rather than exploring their environment. In the strange situation, insecure/resistant infants tend to get very upset when the caregiver leaves them alone in the room, and they are not readily comforted by strangers. When their caregiver returns, they are not easily comforted and both seek comfort and resists efforts by the caregiver to comfort them. o Disorganized/disoriented – a type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children have no consistent way of coping with the stress of the strange situation. Their behavior is often confused or even contradictory, and they often appear dazed or disoriented. |
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Internal working model
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the child’s mental representation of the self, of attachment figure(s), and of relationships in general that is constructed as a result of experiences with caregivers. The working model guides children’s interactions with caregivers and other people in infancy and at older ages.
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Secure base
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refers to the idea that presence of a trusted caregiver provides an infant or toddler with a sense of security that makes it possible for the child to explore the environment.
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Separation anxiety
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feelings of distress that children, especially infants and toddlers, experience when they are separated, or expect to be separated, from individuals to whom they are emotionally attached.
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Social Referencing
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elying on another person’s emotional reaction to appraise an uncertain situation. (child watches parents reaction, in order to react themselves.)
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Socialization
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the process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behaviors that are regarded as appropriate for their present and future role in their particular culture. Parents, teachers and other adults are important socializers for children, although other children the media, and social institutions can play a role in socialization.
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Effortful control
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the abilities to voluntarily manage attention (attentional regulation) and inhibit (inhibitory control) or activate (activational control) behaviour as needed to adapt, especially when the child does not particularly want to do so. For example, the abilities to focus attention when there are distractions, to not interrupt others and sit still in church, and to force oneself to do an unpleasant task are aspects of effortful control.
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Emotional self-regulation
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the process of initiating, inhibiting, or modulating internal feeling states and related physiological processes, cognitions, and behaviors. Strategies we use to adjust our emotional state, expression, and behavior. Requires cognitive advances such as attention, planning, and strategy use. Takes over from parent regulation
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Emotion centered coping
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situation is seen as not changeable. It is used when problem centered coping does not work. It is the internal private control of distress.
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Problem centered coping-
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used if the situation is changeable. Identify the difficulty and decide what to do about it. Hands on approach.
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Sympathy
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feeling of concern or sorrow for another’s plight
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Empathy
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feeling same / similar emotions as another person, complex mix of cognition and emotion, must detect emotion& take others perspective.
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Temperament: major typologies
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constitutionally based individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation that demonstrate consistency across situation, as well as relative stability over time. Reactivity to situations (intensity & duration)
- Easy babies – adjusted readily to new situation, quickly established daily routines such as sleeping and eating, and generally were cheerful in mood and easy to calm. - Difficult babies – slow to adjust to new experiences, tended to react negatively and intensely to novel stimuli and events, and were irregular in their daily routines and bodily functions. - Slow-to-warm-up babies where somewhat difficult at first but became easier over time as they had repeated contact with new objects, people, and situations. o Fearful distress/inhibition – distress and withdrawal, and their duration, in new situations. o Irritable distress – fussiness, anger, and frustration, especially if the child is not allowed to do what he or she wants to do. o Attention span and persistence – duration of orienting toward objects or events of interest. o Activity level – how much an infant moves (waves arms, kicks, crawls) o Positive affect/approach – smiling and laughter, approach to people, degree of cooperativeness and manageability. o Rhythmicity – the regularity and predictability of the child’s bodily functions such as eating and sleeping. |
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Goodness-of-Fit Model
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the degree to which an individual’s temperament is compatible with the demands and expectations of his or her social environment. Explain how temperament and environmental pressures TOGETHER can predict favorable outcomes. Create child rearing environments that “fit” child’s temperament. Explains why temperamentally difficult children are at risk for later adjustment problems. There is no ONE style of parenting that fits to kids best.
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Piaget’s theory of moral development
autonomous development, heteronomous development |
- Autonomous development – Rules as socially-agreed on, changeable. Standard of ideal reciprocity (treat others how you want to be treated.) Judgment based on outcomes and intentions. (10 + years)
- Heteronomous development - View rules as handed down by authorities, permanent, unchangeable, require strict obedience. Judge wrongness by outcomes, not intentions (5 – 10 years of age) |
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Ideal reciprocity
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treat others how you want to be treated.
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Kohlberg’s theory of moral development:
preconventional, conventional, postconventional |
- Preconventional - rules and social expectations are seen as external to and imposed upon the self
o Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience - Very black and white thinking with no gray area. o Stage 2: Instrumental Purpose - Understand that others may have a difference of an opinion. - Conventional - a person has internalized the rules and expectation of others. Person regards social rules as important, but now not so much for self interest as for the interest of maintaining the social system. o Stage 3: “Good boy – good girl” (Morality of interpersonal cooperation) o Stage 4: Social order maintaining - Postconventional – differentiated own morality from the rules and expectations of others. Have moved beyond unquestioning support for the rules and laws of their own society, and define morality in terms of principles that apply to all situations and societies. o Stage 5: Social contract - Laws and rules are flexible instruments o Stage 6: Universal ethical principle - your self-defined rules govern everything |
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Inductive discipline
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Helps child notice others’ feelings. Point out effects of misbehavior on others. Note other’s distress. Make clear the child caused the distress. A positiv
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Empathy-based guilt
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To influence children without coercion, parents can induce empathy-based guilt by explaining that the child’s behavior is causing someone distress and has also disappointed the parent.
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Moral imperatives
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Protect people’s rights and welfare. Victims and other children react strongly to moral offences. Adults explain rights and feelings of victims.
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Social conventions
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Customs such as table manners or dress styles. Peers seldom react to violations of social convention. Adults explain less, demand obedience.
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Distributive justice
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what children view as a fair system for dispersing something of value.
- Equality (counting out and dividing equally) – 5 to 6 years of age - Merit (who earned the reward gets the most) – 6 to 7 years of age - Benevolence – Special consideration for those who are at a disadvantage. Around age 8. |
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Personal fable
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Form of adolescent egocentrism that involves beliefs in the uniqueness of one’s own feelings and thoughts
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Imaginary audience
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the belief, stemming from adolescent egocentrism, that everyone else is focused on the adolescent’s appearance and behavior
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Self recognition-
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recognition of one’s own self. (from merriam-webster).
- Infant’s emerging recognition of self becomes more distinctly apparent by 18 to 20 months of age when many children can look in a mirror and realize they are looking at themselves |
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Self awareness
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condition of being aware of one’s awareness. Gives the option or choice to choose thoughts being thought rather than simply thinking them. (from Wikipedia). Children’s self-assertive behavior and use of language demonstrate their self-awareness.
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Self esteem
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one’s overall evaluation of the worth of the self and the feelings that this evaluation engenders
- Related to how satisfied people are with their lives and their overall outlook - Starts to develop early and is affected by a variety of factors throughout life - Self-esteem scores tend to be lower in China, Japan, and Korea than Western nations - Fundamental differences between Asia and Western cultures that affect the very meaning of self-esteem |
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Marcia’s Identity Statuses:
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Achievement- exploration leading to commitment. Adolescent/individual has achieved coherent identity based on personal decisions. Individual believes these decisions were made autonomously (or by themselves), and is committed to them.
Diffusion- adolescent has no exploration to issues in question, no commitment. Foreclosure- adolescent has not engaged in identity experimentation, but chooses identity based on choices/values of others. commitment without exploration Moratorium- exploration, but no commitment |
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Locus of control
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Who causes outcomes?
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Internal vs external
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self vs luck, powerful others
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Mastery oriented
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Attribute success to, Incremental view of ability (can improve by trying), Focus on learning. Positive outcome: hard work paid off! Negative outcome: try harder, study more.
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Learned helplessness
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Attribute failure to, Entity view of ability (cannot be changed), Focus on performance goals. Positive outcome: it was my lucky day! Neg. outcome: I suck at this.
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Identity achievement
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exploration leading to commitment. Integration of various aspects of self into coherent whole that is stable across time.
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Identity diffusion/confusion
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(Erikson) – no exploration, no commitment. Incomplete/incoherent sense of self.
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Adult attachment:
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based on adults perceptions of their own childhood relationship with their parents and influence those relationships. Measured with Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) describing their childhood. Reports influence their parenting attachment styles.
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Secure/Autonomous:
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past in a balanced manner, recalling both positive and negative features of their parent’s relationship with them.
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Dismissive:
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insecure attachment insist they cannot remember attachment related interactions with parents, minimize the impact. Contradict themselves when describing experiences and seem unaware of inconsistencies.
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Preoccupied/Overinvolved:
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insecure attachment intensely focused on their parents and tend to give confused and angry accounts of attachment.
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Unresolved/Fearful:
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appear to suffer the aftermath of the past traumatic experiences of loss or abuse. Does not make sense. May believe parent is still alive or parent died because of negative thoughts.
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Mother and Infant attachment correlations-
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found a correlation between a mother’s AAI and child’s strange situation behavior 1 year later. Found a strong correlation between a mother’s state of mind before attachment predicts quality of relationship she forms with her infant. Example: Secure mother = secure child.
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Baumrind:
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dimensions of parenting (four parenting types)
authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, rejecting-neglecting |
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authoritative:
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parent demanding but also warm and responsive. Sets clear standards/limits, monitors childs behavior, firm about forcing rules.
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Authoritarian
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parents tends to be cold and unresponsive to childs needs, high in control, demanding, expects kid to comply with demands without question.
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Permissive
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nontraditional - responsive to kids needs, do not require kid to regulate themselves. Kid tends to impulsive, lack self control, low school achievement. More misconduct/drugs
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rejecting – neglecting
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parents disengaged, low in demands and responsive. Don’t set limits for behavior and are not supportive.
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child outcomes associated with
authoritative |
kid competent, self assured, popular, behave in accordance with adults expectations, and low in anti social behavior
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child outcomes associated with
authoritarian |
relatively low in social and academic competence, unhappy and unfriendly, and low in self confidence.
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child outcomes associated with permissive
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Kid tends to impulsive, lack self control, low school achievement. More misconduct/drugs
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child outcomes associated with rejecting-neglecting
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kid tend to have disturbed attachment experiences and problems with peer relationships when young. Older – wide range of problems from anti social behavior, low academics, drugs, depression.
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Coregulation
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teaching child how to care for themselves and make own decisions. Occurs in middle childhood.
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Psychological control
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type of social influence that aims to change perception or behavior of others through underhanded tactics (from wikipedia).
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Autonomy
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kids new sense of freedom while trying to explore environment. Parents restrict kids freedom and teach what behavior are acceptable and unacceptable, parent provides supportive atmosphere allows kid to achieve self control without loss of self esteem. Happens in adolescence, parents foster autonomy of both emotional and behavioral aspects.
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Parten’s sequence of play: nonsocial, parallel, associative, cooperative
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nonsocial: unoccupied solitary play
parallel: play in proximity and with similar materials but do not influence each others play associative: separate activities but comment on each others toys and behaviors cooperative: oriented towards common goal such as playing make believe (all of these interact w each other) |
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Rough and tumble play
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more common in boys, seen in other mammals, distinct from aggression, dominance hierarchy
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Sociometric techniques: popular, rejected(aggressive, withdrawn), controversial, neglected
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popular-many positive nominations and few negative
rejected-many negative and few positive controversial-both positive and negative, liked by a few and disliked by a few neglected-unnoticed by peers and do not receive either positive nor negative |
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Cliques vs. crowds
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cliques-friendship groups that children voluntarily form or join themselves
crowds-more for the older adolescence and they are groups of them who have similar stereotyped reputations (enhance or worsen reputation) |
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Negative vs. Positive effects of dating
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negative: if started too early bad activity and choices could be made
positive: increase self esteem, support system, predict good relationships later on |
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Puberty
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testosterone vs. estraidol/estrogen- testosterone heightens sex drive (and there is much more of it in males than females) and other male “tough” or “risk” tendencies. estrogen is much more present in females and plays a huge role in the development of female sex characteristics, but does not contribute to risk taking behavior.
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Externalizing vs.
Internalizing Problems |
Externalizing – aggressive and antisocial behaviors that create difficulties in a person’s external word (“undercontrolled”, “anger-out”)
vs. Internalizing Problems – problems in mood that primarily affect a person’s internal world (“undercontrolled”, “anger-out”) |
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Life course persistent vs. adolescent delimited delinquency
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life course persistent: innate- neurological problems. Interacting with environmental factors and their “crimogenic environment.” Adolescent delimited- majority of offenders. Crime is profitable/rewarding.
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Major Depressive Disorder-
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5+ symptoms during two week period and affects functioning, greatest at 14 for girls and 16 for boys but more for girls than boys
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SES
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Socioeconomic status
High SES- Affluence Many benefits, children may get more Father involvement, Time, Energy, Material resources, Involvement in decisions Risks Accomplishment pressure, Isolation from adults Low SES- Poverty Can be stressful, children may get more Commands, Criticism, Coercive discipline, Physical punishment, Uninvolved father |
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Resilience
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some children, who despite being poor, were normal to superior range in cognitive, social, health and growth. The parents of these children protected them from harmful effects of poverty. Provided them with safe play areas and lots of learning materials (page 314 in textbook).
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Poverty effects on:
Physical |
More likely to be of low weight at birth or die in the first year of life, Experience higher rates of asthma, anemia, hunger, growth stunting, and lead poisoning, Are more likely to be injured or in accident, Are twice as likely to be uninsured than non-poor children (more than a fifth of poor children uninsured), Are nearly seven times more likely to be reported to Child Protective Services for suspected abuse or neglect
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Poverty effects on:
Cognitive |
Effective planning and decision making, Good school performance, Extensive vocational knowledge
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Poverty effects on:
Emotional-behavioral |
Higher rates of psychiatric disorders, Smoke more and are sexually active earlier in adolescence, Teenagers from low- income households are nearly three times more likely to have a baby than non-poor teenagers, Long-term poverty is associated with children’s inner feelings of anxiety, unhappiness, and dependence, while current poverty is associated with externalizing behaviors, such as disobedience and aggression
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Poverty effects on: Academic outcomes and development
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poor kindergartners know fewer letters and numbers, exhibit less pro-social behavior. First graders score at half deviation of grades in math and reading.
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Poverty effects on: Transitory poor vs. persistently poor
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transitory poor move in and out of poverty. Transient poor kids are not as affected. Persistently poor stay in poverty for long period of time; kids are much more at risk for illness and social/cognitive deficits.
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Cultural and historical phenomenonon- Emerging Adulthood
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all societies, no matter how simple, have a period of adolescence. In contrast, emerging adulthood is limited to countries that postpone entry into adult roles until the mid-20’s. In developing countries such as China and India, only a privileged few get to experience Emerging Adulthood. Young people who are poverty stricken and who live in rural regions are more likely to have limited education and enter into marriage earlier.
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Sociological vs. Psychological perspectives
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article by Shanahan. One camp: what are the markers: leaving school and home of origin, getting job, married, becoming parent. Investigate the variability of sequencing, how they co-occur, and how long it takes for these things to happen. Other camp: “Arnett” adoption of developmental stance to link adolescence and adulthood. What is the interaction of individual agency and social structures in shaping the lives of emerging adults? Shanahan has two themes: Individualization vs. Standardization of living.
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Post formal thought
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eyond Piaget, and beyond formal operations. Movement from black and white to logical reasoning that is more flexible, realistic, and tolerant view.
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Relativistic thinking
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there are multiple truths, and what is the evidence for arguments? This happens gradually, and very much so in college.
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Changes in love, work and world views
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love: start looking for a life partner, someone who you have good communication with. Work- “what am I good at, and enjoy? College and internship “trial runs.” The Forgotten Half- those who do not go into secondary schooling. World view- adopting set of beliefs/values that are your own (not parents/peers). These are communal, civic, political, religious, etc.
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