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453 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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monomer of carbohydrates
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monosaccharides
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3 main monosaccarides
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1. glucose
2.fructose 3. galactose |
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how many different kinds of nucleic acids
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20
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which way does DNA synthesis take place with respect to the N-terminus and the C- terminus
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N --> C
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3 disaccharides
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1. altose
3. sucrose 3. lactose |
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Altose is composed of?
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glucose + glucose
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Sucrose is composed of?
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glucose + fructose
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lactose is composed of?
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glucose + lactose
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2 Polysaccharides
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1. glycogen
2. cellulose |
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What is glycogen used for?
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animals store energy with glycogen
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What is cellulose used for?
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Plants store energy via this
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What are the functions of carbohydrates?
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1. clean energy
2. cell surface markers 3. (bacteria) - helps them stick to surfaces via adhesion |
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What does the breakdown of protein cause?
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Nitrogenous waste
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What does the breakdown of carbohydrates cause?
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sugar and water
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What are the functions of proteins?
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1. enzymes/catalysts
2. cell surface receptors 3. Transport - specifically (hemoglobin) 4. peptide hormones 5. trans-membrane channels |
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What is the monomers of a lipid?
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hydrocarbons
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What are the fatty acids?
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1. saturated fatty acid
2. unsaturated fatty acid 3. trans fatty acid |
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What is a saturated fatty acid?
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-solid at room temperature because the carbon chain cannot add anymore H atoms (hence the name SATURATED)
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What is an unsaturated fatty acid?
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-liquid at room temperature
-can move around -all double bonds are cis |
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What is a trans fatty acid?
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-something that is human created
-these are unsaturated fatty acids that have been heated up and hydrogens added |
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What are the kinds of fatty acids in the body (functional units)? What do they do?
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1. triglycerides - energy storage
2. phospholipids - cell membranes 3. cholesterol - cell membrane - promote membrane fluidity - hormone precurser - steroid hormones can form this |
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What are the functions of a lipid?
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1. energy
2. structural 3. hormones 4. insulation |
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What is the monomer of a nucleic acid?
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nucleotide
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What is a purine?
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-Adenine, Guanine
-2 rings structurally |
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What is a pyrimidine?
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-CUT!
-Cytosine -Thymine -1 ring structurally |
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What are the base pairing rules?
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A to T --> 2H bonds
C to G --> 3H bonds |
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What is the Gibbs free energy equation?
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G = H -TS
-H - enthalpy -S - entropy |
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What is the criteria for an enzyme?
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1. speeds up reaction
2. cant be consumed in a reaction 3. specific to a reaction |
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How are enzymes regualted?
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1. zymogens
2. kinases 3. allosteric regulation |
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What is a zymogen?
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inactive precursor for an enzyme that must be cleaved by a protease to become active
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What is the function of a kinase?
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they phosphyrylate (activate) and dephysphyrlate (deactivate) enzymes
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What is allosteric regulation?
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a molecule binds to the allosteric site of an enzyme and turns it off
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What is a negative feedback loop?
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A -> B -> C -> D -> E -------->Z
when Z is made it tells the enzyme to stop making A -this is important because it helps you save energy |
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What is competitive inhibition?
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-see diagram in notes for more details
-bogus substrate floating around so the protein cant tell the difference so you flood it with the good substrate so it binds -does not reach Vmax as fast |
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What is non-competitive inhibition?
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-you have a functional enzyme that has been deactivated
-Vmax is lowered |
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What is oxidation?
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-gain oxygen
-loose hydrogen -loose electrons |
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What is reduction?
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-loose oxygen
-gain hydrogen -gain electrons |
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What is a grana?
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stack of thylakoids
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Where does glycolysis take place?
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cytoplasm
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Where does the Krebs Cycle take place?
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Mito-matrix
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Where does the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex take place
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Mito-matrix
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where does oxidative phosphorylation take place?
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inner membrane of the mitochondria
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What is the first enzyme use to drive glycolysis? What is the second?
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hexokinase, phospho-fructokinase
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How many ATP produced in glycolysis?
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2 - 4 are really produced, but you use two to make the 4
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How many NADH are made in glycolysis?
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2 NADH
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What is the finals product of glycolysis?
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Pyruvate
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What is made during the PDC cycle?
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CO2 and NADH
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What is the final product of the PDC cycle?
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acetyl CoA
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What is made during the Krebs cycle? How many of each?
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6 - NADH
2 - FADH 2 - GTP |
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1 NADH produces how many ATP
in the mitochondria |
3 ATP
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1 NADH produces how many ATP in the cytoplasm?
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1.5 ATP
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1 FADH produces how many ATP in the cytoplasm?
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1.5 ATP
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How many ATP produced in a eukaryote?
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30 ATP
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How many ATP produced in a prokaryote?
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32 ATP because there is no membrane
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What is the chemical formula for photosynthesis?
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6H20 + 6CO2 --> C6H12O6 + 6O2
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Photosystem I is composed of what?
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H+ ions going through ATP synthase
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Photosystem II is composed of what?
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sunlight going and splitting water to form H+ ions and O2
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Where does photosynthesis take place?
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thylakoid membrane
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Where does glycolysis take place?
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cytoplasm
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Where does the Krebs Cycle take place?
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Mito-matrix
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Where does the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex take place
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Mito-matrix
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where does oxidative phosphorylation take place?
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inner membrane of the mitochondria
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What is the first enzyme use to drive glycolysis? What is the second?
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hexokinase, phospho-fructokinase
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What are the kinds off mutations that can occur in DNA?
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1. point mutation
2. Frame-shift mutation |
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What are the different kinds of point mutations?
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1. missense mutation
2. nonsense mutation 3. silent mutation |
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What is a missense mutation?
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one amino is changed and causes a mistake in the order
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What is a non-sense mutation?
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premature stop codon
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What is a silent mutation?
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- a mutation occurs but has not real effect
- the reason these occur is that we have 64 diffrent codons that code for 20 amino acids, 3 of which are stop codons |
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What is a frame-shift mutation?
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-insertion or deletion of a base pair
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What DNA polymerase is used to elongate DNA in prokaryotes
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DNA Polymerase III
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What DNA polymerase is used to elongate DNA in eukaryotes?
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DNA Polymerase I
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What does RNA polymerase I make?
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rRNA
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What does RNA polymerase II make?
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mRNA
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What does RNA polymerase III make?
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tRNA
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What is an example of a start codon?
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AUG
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What is an example of a stop codon?
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UAG, UAA, UGA
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What are the two cycles that a virus can take once its DNA/RNA is injected into a cell?
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1. lytic
2. lysogenic |
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What is the lytic cycle?
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when a virus injects is DNA/RNA into a cell the DNA is replicated and the cell bursts
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What is the lysogenic cycle?
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a viral genone inserts its self into the cell and remains dormant. Eventually the cell replicated and one day when something triggers the virus (stress) the cell lysis. An example is the herpes virus
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What nucleaic acids are non-polar?
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VAT PLIP
Valine, Alinine, Tyriptophan, Proline, Leucine, Isoleucine, Phenylalenine |
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What is a nucleic acid composed of?
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base + sugar + phosphate
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What DNA Polymerase is used in prokaryotes?
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3
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What DNA Polymerase is used in eukaryotes?
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1
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what do RNA polymerase 1,2, and 3 do respectively?
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rRNA, mRNA, tRNA
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Where does translation take place?
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in the cytoplasm on a ribosome
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Where do all proteins begin?
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in the cytoplasm
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Explain the mechanism of the signal sequence and RER.
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a signal sequence is translated by the ribosome which then attaches to the SRP which causes the protein to bind to a receptor on the RER and send it through the RER
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Are signal sequences hydrophobic or hydrophilic?
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hydrophobic
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What is a desmosome?
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-A type of junction
-holds cells together but no real seal (most common) -cell to cell adhesion like muscle cell to muscle cell |
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What is a gap junction?
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-type of junction found in cardiac cells
-small holes directly between cells -they allow small molecules like Na and K to go through -the heart is able to beat is a functional syncytium because of these type of junctions |
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What is a tight junction?
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-a type of junction that is found in the lumen of the small intestines
-found in blood brain barrier -found in blood testes barrier |
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Rank the cytoskeleton filaments from smallest to largest
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microfilament < intermediate filament < microtubules
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What are microfilaments made of?
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Actin - most thin, can assemble and disassemble
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What do microfilaments control?
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movements of muscles, responsible for gross movement of cell
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What kind of arrangement does a microtubules have?
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9/2
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what are intermediate filaments made of?
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many different polypeptides, dont assemble and disassemble
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what is the role of intermediate filaments?
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give shape and structure
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What are microtubles made of?
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tubulin dimers - thickets, can assemble and dissasemble
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What is the role of a microtubles?
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cillia, flagela, mitotic spindle, intracellular movement
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What is cholestrol and what does it do to the lipid bilayer?
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its a hydrophilic molecule that promotes cell membrane fluidity
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What is a transmembrane protein?
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a protein that transverses the entire lenght of the cell membrane
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What is an integral membrane protein?
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its a protein that is only on one side of the plasma membrane
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What does it mean to be hypotonic?
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It means "less" concentrated than what you are comparing it to
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What does it mean to be hypertonic?
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It means "more" concentrated than what you are comparing it to
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What is simple diffusion?
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-solutes transverse across membrane without any help
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What kind of molecules engage in simple diffusion?
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-non polar molecules such as CO2 and steroids
-things that are hydrophobic |
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What is facilitated diffusion?
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-diffusion that uses proteins for help to get through a membrane
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What are the kinds of things that assist in facilitated diffusion?
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-pores - non-specific holes
-ion channels - specific to ions (voltage gated ion channels) -carrier proteins - specific to protein |
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What is active transport?
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-a kind of transport that expels energy from ATP to move molecules against the natural gradient
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What are the two types of active transport and how do they work?
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Primary - use ATP to directly transport molecules
Secondary - harness concentration gradient created by primary to move molecules |
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What is the longest phase of the cycle
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Interphase
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What takes place in the G1 phase?
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growth of cell, general growth process
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What takes place during S phase?
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synthesis of DNA, replication
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What happens during G2?
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growth, getting ready to divide
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What is a sister chromatid?
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-identical copy of a chromosome that occurs after S phase
-attached at centromere |
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What is a homologous chromosome?
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-2 non-identical versions of the same gene
Ex. X and Y chromosomes -there are 23 homologous chromosomes and 46 total chromosomes - |
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What happens in prophase mitosis?
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-nuclear membrane dissipates
-sister chromatids condense -mitotic spindle begins to appear |
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What happens in metaphase during mitosis?
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sister chromatids align on metaphase plate
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What happens in anaphase during mitosis?
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-sister chromatids separate and cleavage furrow forms
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What happens in telophase during mitosis?
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the cells separate and form two new ones with identical genetic information
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What happens in prophase 1 during meiosis?
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-homologous chromosomes -pair in tetrads and crossing over occurs
-this is the longest phase of meiosis |
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What happens in metaphase 1 during meiosis?
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tetrads line up along metaphase plate
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What happens in anaphase 1 during meiosis?
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homologous chromosomes that went through crossing over separate and cleavage furrow begins to form
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What happens in telophase 1 during meiosis?
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cell separates into two cells
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What happens in meiosis 2?
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-same stuff as meiosis 1 minus the crossing over part in prophase 1
-in anaphase the sister chromatids separate and this results in 8 daughter cells |
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What is a polymorphic trait?
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a trait with more than two alleles
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what is incomplete dominance?
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-when a heterozygote is a blended mix of two traits
-Ex. red/white = pink flower |
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What is co-dominance?
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When alleles are expressed independently and simultaneously
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What is pleiotropism?
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when a gene is altered, many seemingly unrelated traits are altered
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What is polygeneism?
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complex traits that are affected by man different genes
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What is penetrance?
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the likelihood that a person with a given genotype will express the expected genotype
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What is epistasis?
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expression of a gene is dependant on another gene
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What is a testcross?
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a genetic cross between an organizm displaying a recessive phenotype (homozygous recessive) and an organism displaying a dominant phenotype (for which the genotype is unknown), done to determine the unknown genotype
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If a trait skips a generation in a pedigree is it recessive or dominant?
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recessive
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If more males have a disease in a pedigree is it autosomal or sex linked?
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sex linked
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If a trait is sex linked and all males have the trait, which chromosome is the trait on?
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Y, hemophelia, male pattern baldness, color blind
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What is the law of segregation?
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the two alleles of an individual are separated and passed down singly
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What is the law of independent assortment?
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-the alleles for a given gene will separate into gametes independently of alleles for another gene
-hair color separate form eye color |
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What is the rule of multiplication in terms of probability ?
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the probability that event A & B will happen is P(A) x P(B)
-and is the key term AND |
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What is the rule of addition in terms of probability?
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-probability of you having blonde hair or blue eyes = P(B) + P(E) - P(B&E)
-the key is term OR |
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What is the myolin sheeth made of?
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schwann cells
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During a resting potential what side of the axon is positive and which side is negative?
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The inside is negative and the outside is negative
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What is the resting membrane positions of Na and K?
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NOT KIN
-Na goes in and K goes out |
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What is the resting potential of a cell?
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-70
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What is overshoot in an action potential?
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after the cell polarizes the Na channels are slow to close after all the Na has come in and as the cell re-polarizes the axon becomes hyperpolarized because the Na channels are slow to close and K cannot get back in as fast
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What is the absolute refractory period?
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Na are inactive so you cant start another action potential
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What is the relative refractory period?
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-its much harder to get back to the -50 mark because of the hyper polarized period
-it is difficult to create another action potential |
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What are the two types of synapses?
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Electrical - occur when the cytoplams of two cells are joined by gap junctions
-if two cells are joined by an electrical synapse the AP will spread directly from one cell to the other -common in muscle cells and cardiac muscle Chemical - found at the ends of axons where they meet their target cell, where the AP is turned into a chemical signal |
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What is an excitatory synapse?
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causes depolarization of the next synapse
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What is an inhibitory synapse?
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can cause it to hyperpolarize of do nothign
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What are the two types of post synaptic summations?
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temporal - high frequency from one cell
spatial - inputs from many different presympathetic neurons -generally neurons do a combo of the two |
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Explain the nervous system tree
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Nervous system
l l CNS PNS l somatic autonomic l l sympathetic parasympathetic |
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what does the CNS control?
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brain, spinal cord
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What is an efferent impulse?
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A signal from spinal cord to limbs. Basically a signal leading away
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What is an afferent impulse?
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A signal from limbs to brain. Basically a signal leading to brain
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What does the somatic section of the PNS control?
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voluntary control
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What does the autonomic section of the PNS control?
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it controls the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems
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What is the role of the parasympathetic system?
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rest and digest
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What is the role of the sympathetic nervous system?
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4 F's
-fright -flight -fight -sex (fuck) |
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What does the hindbrain include?
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-medula
-pons -cerebellum |
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What does the medula do?
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responsible for control of autonomic process such as BP, respiratory rate, and vomiting
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What does the pons do?
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responsible for autonomic balance and antigravity posture
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What does the cerebellum do?
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responsible for complex movements
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What is the role of the midbrain?
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it is a relay for visual and auditory information and contains much o the reticular activating system
-responsible for arousal (wakefulness) |
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What parts compose the brainstem?
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medulla, pons, and midbrain
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What parts compose the forebrain?
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-diencephalon
-telencephalon |
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What are the parts of the diencephalon?
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-Thalmus
-hypohalmus |
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What is the thalmus?
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relay center for somatic sensation
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What is the hypothalmus?
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controls homeostatic functions such as temperature regulation and primitive emotional responses such as hunger, rage, and sexual drive
-control center for endocrine system |
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What is the telenchephalon?
|
consists of the cerebral hemispheres plus the basal nuclei and the limbis system
-basal nuclei regulate body movement -limbic system hast o do with emptions |
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What is the cerbral cortex made up of and what part of the forebrain is it a part of?
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-grey and white matter
-telenchephalon |
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How is the cerebral cortex divided?
|
4 pairs of lobes
-frontal lobes -parietal lobes -temporal lobes -occipital lobes |
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What does the frontal lobe control?
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initiates all voluntary movement and are involved in complex reasoning skills
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What does the parietal lobes control?
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general sensations such as touch, temperature, pressure, and touch
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What is the role of the temporal lobe?
|
process auditory and olfactory sensation and are involved in short term memory
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what is the role of the occipital lobes?
|
process visual sensation
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What is the corpus callosum?
|
a thick bundle of axons that connects the two cerebral cortices
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What is the role of cranial nerves? How many are there?
|
-convey sensory and motor information to and from the brainstem
-12 pairs of them |
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What is the role of spinal nerves? How many are there?
|
convey sensory and motor information to and from the spinal cord
-31 pairs of them |
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What is the vagus nerve responsible for?
|
-decreases heart rate and increases GI activity
-part of the parasympathetic nervous system |
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What is he dorsal root ganglion?
|
-bunch of somatic sensory neuron cell bodies located just dorsal (to the back of) the spinal cord
-part of the somatic nervous system |
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What is autocrine activiy?
|
it is when a endocrine glands own product stimulates or restricts activity
|
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What are the characteristics of a peptide hormone?
|
-hydrophilic
-synthesized in RER and modified in Golgi -bind to extracellular receptor and a secondary messenger cascade forms on the inside of the cell -short lived lifetime (seconds to hours) |
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What are the characteristics of a steroid hormone?
|
-hydrophobic
-synthesized by cholesterol in smooth ER -steroid hormones bind to ligands inside of the cell membrane (they are able to pass freely through it) and are transported into nucleous in which they restrict transcription -effects are long lived and occur over a period of day to weeks |
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What is a tropic hormone?
|
-a hormone that regulates other hormones
-due to the complex nature of the endocrine system these kinds of hormones are necessary |
|
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What is the role of the hypothalamus?
|
-master gland
-controls endocrine system -releases tropic hormones which control other tropic hormones -controls anterior pituitary |
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What is the role of the hypothalamic pituitary portal system?
|
-it is what connects the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary
-we dont have many capillary tubes because once blood enters a capillary its pressure drops greatly |
|
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What are the two halves of the pituitary gland?
|
-anterior (adenohypophysis)
-posterior (neurohypophysis) |
|
|
What hormones does the anterior pituitary release?
|
F - FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)
L - LH (leutinizing hormone) A - ACTH (adenocoricotrophic hormone) T - TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) P - prolactin I - NOTHING G - GH (growth hormone) |
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|
what are the properties of the Posterior pituitary?
|
-composed of nervous tissue
-stores hormoens made in hypothalumus -hypothalamus sends nervous signal down neuron and tells posterior to release hormones ADH or oxytocin |
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Rank from greatest pressure to least: venuels, arterioles, capillaries, arteries
|
arteries > arterioles > capillaries > venuels
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Which side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs?
|
Right side - pulmonary circulation
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Which side of the heart pumps blood to the body?
|
Left side - systemic circulation
|
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What is the AV valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle?
|
bicuspid or mitral valve
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What is the AV valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle?
|
tricuspid valve
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What valve is on the bottom of the left ventricle?
|
Aortic semi-lunar valve
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What valve is on the bottom of the right ventricle?
|
pulmonary semi-lunar valve
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What happens in diastole?
|
the atria contract and shoot blood into the ventricles
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What happens in systole?
|
the ventricles contract and shoot blood past the semi-lunar valves
|
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What is a functional syncytium?
|
-a property of cardiac muscle cells
-different cells can communicate via gap junctions |
|
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What do voltage gated ion channels control in the passage of an electrical impulse through the heart?
|
-these gated ion channels are what allow K/Na to pass through to initiate the action potential
|
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What do gated ion channels do in the heart?
|
they allow the neighbouring myocyte to become charged and undergo an action potential
|
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Where is the SA node located?
|
in the right atrium
|
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What is the internodal tract?
|
the pathway that connects the SA and AV nodes together
|
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What is the AV bundle?
|
-also known as the bundle of his
-the place where the AV node is connected to the SA node -has a left and right component |
|
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What does erythropoeitin do?
|
stimulates RBC production the bone marrow
|
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What is the role of carbonic anhydrase?
|
the conversion of CO2 into carbonic acid is catalyzed by an RBC enzyme called CARBONIC ANYHYDRASE
|
|
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What is the role of carbonic anhydrase?
|
the conversion of CO2 into carbonic acid is catalyzed by an RBC enzyme called CARBONIC ANYHYDRASE
|
|
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What is the role of carbonic anhydrase?
|
the conversion of CO2 into carbonic acid is catalyzed by an RBC enzyme called CARBONIC ANYHYDRASE
|
|
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What is the role of carbonic anhydrase?
|
the conversion of CO2 into carbonic acid is catalyzed by an RBC enzyme called CARBONIC ANYHYDRASE
|
|
|
What is the role of the hepatic portal vein?
|
it transports amino acids and glucose that is absorbed in the digestive tract to the liver
|
|
|
What is the role of the hepatic portal vein?
|
it transports amino acids and glucose that is absorbed in the digestive tract to the liver
|
|
|
What is the role of the hepatic portal vein?
|
it transports amino acids and glucose that is absorbed in the digestive tract to the liver
|
|
|
What is the role of the hepatic portal vein?
|
it transports amino acids and glucose that is absorbed in the digestive tract to the liver
|
|
|
What is the role of carbonic anhydrase?
|
the conversion of CO2 into carbonic acid is catalyzed by an RBC enzyme called CARBONIC ANYHYDRASE
|
|
|
What is the role of the hepatic portal vein?
|
it transports amino acids and glucose that is absorbed in the digestive tract to the liver
|
|
|
What are the three things that the lymphatic system does?
|
-remove excess fluid from tissues
-provide immunity using WBC's -transport dietary fats |
|
|
What is the complement system?
|
a group of about 20 proteins that can non-specifically bind to the surface of foreign cells, leading to their destruction
|
|
|
What does an antibody bind to in order to recognize a foreign species?
|
-they bind to antigens that have marked a certain foreign invader
-the variable region of the antibody recognizes these |
|
|
What are B-cells?
|
each B-cell produces only one kind of antibody
|
|
|
Where are B-cells derived from?
|
bone marrow
|
|
|
Why are there so many different kinds of B-cells?
|
-there is one B cell for each kind of antibody
-they are produced via recombination, therefore there are many different kinds of them |
|
|
When a B-cell attaches to a antigen, what immune response occurs?
|
-plasma cells form
-memory cells form |
|
|
What do plasma cells do?
|
produce more antibodies
|
|
|
What do memory cell do?
|
-they produce dormant forms of B-cells
-allow you to mount a very quick immune response |
|
|
How do T-helper cells communicate?
|
by releasing lymphokines and interleukins
|
|
|
What is the role of the major histocompatibility complex 1?
|
-found on the surface of every nucleated cell in the body
-randomly pick up peptides from inside the cell and display them on the cell surface -this allows the T-cells to monitor the contents |
|
|
What is the role of the major histocompatibility complex 2?
|
-this complex is on APC (antigen-presenting cells)
-T-helper cells recognize antigens and cause B-cells/killer T cells proliferation for body wide immune response -these contain B-cells and macrophages |
|
|
What phase of embryogenesis creates the GI tract?
|
gastrulation
|
|
|
What phase of embryogenesis creates the anus?
|
blastopore
|
|
|
What is the mucosa of the GI tract made out of?
|
epithelial tissue
|
|
|
What is the submucosa of the GI tract made out of?
|
connective tissue
|
|
|
What is the circular muscularis of the GI tract made out of?
|
smooth muscle
|
|
|
What is the longitudinal muscularis of the GI tract made out of?
|
smooth muscle
|
|
|
What is the serosa of the GI tract made out of?
|
connective tissue
|
|
|
What are some of the characteristics of the GI epithelium?
|
-contains microvilli
-the apical surface is separated from the remainder of the cell surface by tight junctions |
|
|
What are some characteristics of the GI smooth muscle?
|
-has a smooth microscopic appearance
-there are two kinds of smooth muscle in the gut (longitudinal and circular) -contracts periodically without external stimulation -these contractions operate as a functional syncytium -contains its on special nervous system - enteric nervous system |
|
|
What kinds of muscle are striated?
|
skeletal and cardiac muscle
|
|
|
What is an acini in terms of the enxocrine system?
|
it is what exocrine glands are composed of
|
|
|
What are the key differences between the exocrine and endocrine system?
|
exocrine - uses ducts
endocrine - ductless |
|
|
What organs are part of the exocrine system?
|
liver, gallbladder, and pancreas
|
|
|
What kind of enzymes to gastric glands secrete? Where are they located?
|
acid and pepsinogen,
|
|
|
What kinds of muscle are striated?
|
skeletal and cardiac muscle
|
|
|
What is smooth muscle responsible and where is it found?
|
GI motility, constriction of blood vessels, uterine contractions
|
|
|
What is a tendon?
|
-It is what attaches muscles to bones
-primarily made up of collagen |
|
|
Why do muscles look striated?
|
due to the overlapping arrangements of bonds of thick and thin filaments in sarcomeres
|
|
|
What are the 4 steps in filament sliding?
|
1. binding of mysosin head to myosin binding site on actin
2. power stroke occurs 3. ATP binds so that actin releases from the myosin head 4. ATP hydrolysis occurs and myosin head is ready for another cycle |
|
|
What region of a sarcomere is the H zone?
|
look at diagram
|
|
|
What region of a sarcomere is the Z zone?
|
look at diagram
|
|
|
What is the difference between tropomyosin and troponin in terms of function?
|
troponin is what blocks tropomyosin from binding to myosin heads. when calcium come and binds to the troponin it moves the tropomyosin so the myosin head can attach to it
|
|
|
What is hematopoiesis?
|
synthesizing red and white blood cells in the marrow of flat bones
|
|
|
Where are all connective tissue cells made?
|
fibroblast
|
|
|
What is the role of elastin?
|
it gives tissues the ability to stretch and regain its shape
|
|
|
What are the two types of connective tissue?
|
loose and dense
|
|
|
What does loose connective tissue include?
|
-fat tissue
-extracellular matrix |
|
|
What does dense connective tissue include?
|
-tissues that contain large amounts of collagen such as bones, tendons, and ligaments
|
|
|
What kinds of structures are made of flat bones?
|
-scapula, ribs, and bones of skull
-site of hematopoiesis |
|
|
What kinds of structures are made of long bones?
|
the ones that are important for support and movement
|
|
|
What is the main shaft of a long bone called?
|
diaphysis
|
|
|
What is the flared end of a long bone called?
|
epiphysis
|
|
|
What is the difference between red and yellow marrow?
|
-red marrow is found in spongy bone and is the site of hematopoiesis
-yellow marrow is found in the shafts of long bones and is filled with fat and is inactive |
|
|
What is the basic unit of the bone?
|
osteon
|
|
|
What is the role of osteoblasts?
|
-make bones
-decrease blood Ca++ levels |
|
|
What is the role of osteoclasts?
|
-breakdown bone
-increase blood Ca++ levels |
|
|
What is a chondrocyte?
|
secretes cartilage
|
|
|
What are the three types of cartilage?
|
-hyaline - strong and somewhat flexible
-elastic - found in structures that require more support and flexibility such as the ear -fibrous - very rigid |
|
|
What do ligaments do?
|
connect bones to other bones
|
|
|
What kind of cartilage is destroyed when one has arthritis?
|
articular
|
|
|
What are the parts of the body that participate in only ventilation called?
|
the ventilation zones
|
|
|
What are the parts of the body that participate only in respiration called?
|
conduction zones
|
|
|
What is surfactant?
|
it is a soapy substance that coats the alveoli and prevents it from collapsing onto itself due to surface tension of water
|
|
|
What is the pleural space?
|
-the space between the parietal pleura and the visceral pleura in the lungs
-has negative pressure |
|
|
What is the role of peripheral chemoreceptors?
|
They are located in the aorta and the carotid arteries and monitor the partial pressure of CO2, pH and partial pressure of O2 in the blood
|
|
|
What is the role of central chemoreceptors?
|
do the same thing as peripheral chemoreceptors but monitor in CSF
|
|
|
What is an acrosome?
|
compartment on the head of the sperm that contains hydrolytic enzymes required for penetration of the ovums protective layers
|
|
|
What is the role of the testes?
|
produces sperm
|
|
|
What is the function of the seminal vesicals?
|
nourishment of sperm
|
|
|
What is the role of the seminiferous tubules?
|
the nurturing and development of sperm
|
|
|
What is the role of the Luteinizing hormone in males?
|
it stimulates the interstitial cells to secrete testosterone
|
|
|
What is the rold of Follicle stimulating hormone in males?
|
is stimulates sustenacular cells of the seminal vesicles
|
|
|
What is the endometrium in he female anatomy?
|
it is the tissue that is shed every month in a menstrual cycle in the absence of a zygote
|
|
|
What is the role of the greater vestibular glands?
|
to lubricate the vagina during time of arousal
|
|
|
What are granulosa cells?
|
they are the cells that support a primary oocyte to form the follicle
|
|
|
What is the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle?
|
-the primary follicle matures and secretes estrogen
-this is under control by the anterior pituatary |
|
|
What happens in the ovulatory phase?
|
-a secondary oocyte is released from the ovary
-triggered by a surge of luteinizing hormone from the anterior pituitary |
|
|
What happens in the luteal phase?
|
-begins with the full formation of the corpus luteum in the ovary
-progesterone and estrogen are both secreted |
|
|
What are the phases of the Ovarian cycle?
|
follicular phase, ovulatory phase, luteal phase
|
|
|
What is Punctuated equilibrium?
|
In punctuated equilibrium, change comes in spurts. There is a period of very little change, and then one or a few huge changes occur, often through mutations in the genes of a few individuals.
|
|
|
What is catastrophism?
|
An event like a metor suddenly changes the landscape of the earth
|
|
|
What do osteoclasts do?
|
Release Ca++ in the presence of parathyroid hormone
|
|
|
What does the parathyroid hormone do?
|
cause the release of Ca++ so that bone are degraded
|
|
|
What do oseoblasts do?
|
Deposit Ca++ in the presence of calcitonin
|
|
|
What does calcitonin do?
|
Cause the deposition of Ca++ so that bones are formed
|
|
|
Where/what does trypsin do?
|
located in the small intestines and hydrolyses proteins
|
|
|
Where is amylase located?
|
secreted by the mouth in saliva and by the pancreas into the small intestine
|
|
|
Where/what does pepsin do?
|
hydrolyse proteins in the stomach
|
|
|
What does the ectoderm form?
|
the ectoderm differentiates to form the nervous system (spine, peripheral nerves and brain), tooth enamel and the epidermis
|
|
|
What is the vitelline membrane?
|
outer layer of a zygote that is fully detached and discarded during fertilization
|
|
|
What are septate?
|
Part of fungi that act as perforated cell walls that turn an otherwise unicellular hypha into a multi cellular form
|
|
|
What are haustoria?
|
Part of fungi that are modified ends that penetrate host tissue for nutrients absoption
|
|
|
What are mycellia?
|
Part of fungi that act like haustoria but in a large mesh netowork with amplified effects
|
|
|
What is adaptive radiation?
|
diversely adapted from a common ancestor
|
|
|
What is ecological speciation?
|
adaptation on the basis of location and activity
|
|
|
What is allopatric speciation?
|
isolation va geographical boundries
|
|
|
What is morphological speciation?
|
-seperation due to morphological features
-a tree and a tiger cant fuck |
|
|
Where is Leutinizing hormone produced?
|
anterior pituitary
|
|
|
An anticodon is part of what?
|
tRNA
|
|
|
What is a fast block?
|
it is when an electric charge prevents further attachment of sperm
|
|
|
What is a slow block?
|
it is a block created in an egg during fertilization by enzymatic activity, generally occurs slowly
|
|
|
What is a testcross?
|
Test crosses involve breeding the individual in question with another individual that expresses a recessive version of the same trait. If all offspring display the dominant phenotype, the individual in question is homozygous dominant; if the offspring display both dominant and recessive phenotypes, then the individual is heterozygous.
|
|
|
What is a plasmodesmata?
|
it is a type of cell junction in plants that allow cytoplasmic connections
|
|
|
What do interstital cells do?
|
produce male sex hormones
|
|
|
Where is sperm produced?
|
seminiferous tubules
|
|
|
What do sertoli cells do?
|
nourish sperm cells
|
|
|
Where does sperm mature?
|
epidiymus
|
|
|
What doe rod cells in your eye do?
|
-distinguish black and white in low density light
-remain depolarized in the dark -remain hyperpolarized in the light |
|
|
What do cone cells do in your eye?
|
distinguish colors in high density light
|
|
|
What is the compliment system?
|
-a chemical defense system designed to detroy microorganisms
-it complements the imune system and is comprised of a complex series of serum proteins |
|
|
What is synapsis?
|
when two homologous chromosomes pair up during prophase 1 of mieosis
|
|
|
What are chiasmata?
|
-the place where crossing over takes place
-"X" region formed |
|
|
What is allopatric speciation?
|
when a new species forms because of geographical isolation
|
|
|
What is sympatric speciation?
|
speciation that occurs after ecological, genetic or behavioural barriers arise within the same geographical boundary of a single population
|
|
|
What is poloyploidy?
|
-when an organism has more then two pairs of homologous chromosomes
-triploidy -tetraploidy |
|
|
What is the founders effect?
|
after a disaster most of the gene pool is wiped out. The founders effect is the loss of genetic diversity
|
|
|
What phylum is the earthworm from?
|
annelida
|
|
|
What phylum are flatworms from?
|
platyhelminthes
|
|
|
What phylum are roundworms from?
|
nemotoda
|
|
|
What phylum are mosses from
|
Bryophytes
|
|
|
What phylum is red algae from?
|
Rhodophyta
|
|
|
What phylum is green algae from?
|
Spirogyra
|
|
|
What kind of pressure pulls fluid into capillaries?
|
oncotic pressure
|
|
|
What kind of pressure pushes fluid out of a capillary?
|
hydrostatic pressure
|
|
|
What is one mole of sucrose hydrolyzed into?
|
one mole of glucose and one mole of fructose
|
|
|
What is one mole of maltose hydrolyzed into?
|
2 moles of glucose
|
|
|
What is one mole of lactose hydrolyzed into?
|
1 mole galactose and one mole glucose
|
|
|
What is primary sucession?
|
occurs in areas without soil and has not previously supported a community
|
|
|
What is secondary sucession?
|
occurs in disturbed areas such as burned over land
|
|
|
What is a K-selected population?
|
one in which the members have low reproductive rates and are roughly constant in size
|
|
|
What is a R-selected population?
|
rapid growth, numerous offspring, fast maturation and very little post natal care
|
|
|
What is capacitation?
|
it is the process of sperm maturation in the females vagina
|
|
|
What are intermediate fibers made of?
|
keritin
|
|
|
What are microtubules made up of?
|
tubulin
|
|
|
What is a tight junction?
|
-seal cells and prevent leakage
-intestine |
|
|
What is a gap junction?
|
-allow cells to exchange nutrients for molecular communication
|
|
|
What is a desmosome?
|
-hold adjacent cells togather and give mechanical strength
|
|
|
What is mesenchyme?
|
embryonic connective tissue that gives rise to most of the connective tissue cells
|
|
|
What is a hydrostatic skeleton?
|
skeleton that consists of fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment
-main type of skeleton in most cnidarians, flatworms (planarians), nematodes, annelids, and smails |
|
|
What is the Cori cycle?
|
allow the conversion of lactate back into glucose
|
|
|
What is epistasis?
|
when one gene covers up the expression of another genotype
|
|
|
What is plieotrophy?
|
-when one gene affects a bunch of other traits
-hair color |
|
|
What is a notochord?
|
cartilaginous rod that extends from the head to the tail in the embryo of all chordates
|
|
|
Where does fatty acid degradation take place?
|
outer mitochondrial membrane
|
|
|
Where does Coenzyme A formation take place
|
Mitochondrial matrix
|
|
|
What is the role of cholecystokinin?
|
stimulate the gall bladder to release bile
|
|
|
What is determinate cleavage?
|
during embroyonic development when the cells first divide they die
|
|
|
What is indeterminate cleavage?
|
during embroyonic development when the cells first divide two viable embryos are formed
|
|
|
What do gibberellins do?
|
induce palnts to allow stem elongation
|
|
|
What does ethylene do for plants?
|
stimulates fruit ripening
|
|
|
What does abscisic acid to for plants?
|
inhibits plant growth hormones
|
|
|
What do cytokinins do?
|
plant hormones involved with promoting cell division
|
|
|
What is a habitat?
|
physical environment in which an organism lives
|
|
|
What is a niche?
|
the role that an organism plays in its natural community, the way it lives, eats and reproduces
|
|
|
What is a community?
|
the interacting of different populations or a species
|
|
|
What is a biome?
|
tundra, taiga, etc.
|
|
|
What is a population?
|
a group of individuals belonging to the same species that interbreed while occupying a given area at a given time
|
|
|
What is convergent evolution?
|
when to different lineages form similar structures
|
|
|
What does the hormone secretin do?
|
stimulates the secretion of pancreatic juice, especially the bicorbonate portion
|
|
|
If we increase degrees of unsaturation,what happens to membrane fluidity?
|
more fluid
|
|
|
What is the link between the nervous system and the endocrine system?
|
hypothalamus
|
|
|
What is an apocrine gland?
|
a gland that responds to stress
|
|
|
what is an eccrine gland?
|
responsible for maintenance of body temperature
|
|
|
What is a steroid hormone synthesized from?
|
cholestrol
|
|
|
What is progeria?
|
you see premature ageing
|
|
|
what are prostaglandins?
|
modified fatty acids which help induce fever, pain sensation, and inflammation
|
|
|
What is the hormone ecdysone?
|
hormone involved in molting and metamorphosis
|
|
|
what is hyperplasia
|
increase in cell production
|
|
|
what is aplasia
|
defective development of tissue
|
|
|
What is sarcoma?
|
cancer of connective tissue
|
|
|
what is carcinoma?
|
cancer of epithelial tissue
|
|
|
What is the gray crescent?
|
the side opposite to the the side where sperm penetrate and egg
|
|
|
What is the neural plate?
|
gives rise to neural tube
|
|
|
what is the vegetal pole on an egg?
|
the spot where the yolk is the most concentrated
|
|
|
What is turner syndrome?
|
monosomy where a person has only XO
|
|
|
What stage in the cells reproductive cycle is a karyotype taken
|
metaphase
|
|
|
What do muscle cells during oxygen deprivation gain from the conversion of pyruvate?
|
NAD+ and lactate
|
|
|
What are nonsteroid hormones synthesized from? What are they soluble in?
|
amino acids, water
|
|
|
what is hyperplasia
|
increase in cell production
|
|
|
What are steroid hormones made from? What are they soluble in?
|
cholesterol, lipid soluble
|
|
|
What is norepinephrine and epinephrine derived from?
|
they are derived from non-steroids
|
|
|
What are nontracheophytes
|
plants lacking vascular tissue
|
|
|
What is the role of the xylem?
|
transports water and minerals up the stem
|
|
|
What is the role of the phloem?
|
transport nutrients and sugars down the stem
|
|
|
what do megakaryocytes make?
|
platelets
|
|
|
what are leucocytes?
|
white blood cells
|
|
|
What is a reticulocyte?
|
immature red blood cells
|
|
|
What is an eosinophil?
|
white blood cells that combat multicellular parasites
|
|
|
What are gibberellins?
|
promote stem elongation and flowering in some plants
|
|
|
what are cytokinins in plants?
|
promote cell division
|
|
|
what is abscisic acid in plants?
|
inhibitor of plant hormones
|
|
|
What is ethylene in plants?
|
it promotes fruit ripening
|
|
|
Can you find centrioles in plant cells?
|
nope
|
|
|
What does it mean to be a gram positive bacteria
|
they have a thick peptidoglycan layer and appear purple after gram staining
|
|
|
What hormones are produces in the anterior pituitary?
|
HGH, FSH, TSH, LH, Prolactin
hypertonic fish take little pee |
|
|
What hormones are produced by the posterior pituitary?
|
ADH and Oxytocin
|
|
|
What does the adrenal cortex make?
|
aldosterone and cortisol
|
|
|
What does aldosterone do?
|
causes more water to be absorbed and Na to be retained
|
|
|
What layer of gastrulation are the molars, promolars, and canines developmed from?
|
ectoderm
|
|
|
What is part of the ectoderm?
|
hair, eyes, teeth, skin, nervous system, lens of the eye
|
|
|
What is part of the endoderm?
|
lining of bladder, digestive and respiratory tracts, liver, pancreas, gall bladder
|
|
|
What is part of the mesoderm?
|
skeleton, muscles, gonads, kidney, and circulatory system
|
|
|
What is collagen?
|
fibrous protein that makes up bone and connective tissue and is in the form of a triple helix. Every third position is occupied with a glycine
|
|
|
Where does spermatogenesis occur?
|
seminiferous tubules
|
|
|
If fertilization does not occur what does the corpus luteum break down into?
|
corpus albicans
|
|
|
What is an amphioxus and a tunicate?
|
an invertebrate
|
|
|
Do chordates have vertebrates?
|
Yes
|
|
|
What type of animals are osteichthys?
|
bony fish
|
|
|
what is a cnidoblast?
|
specialized cells located in the tentacles and body wall of coelenterates
|
|
|
What is a nematocyst?
|
the interior of coelenterates that are filled with stinging cells
|
|
|
When is carbon fixed in photosynthesis?
|
light reactions
|
|
|
How many heart chambers to reptiles have?
|
3
|
|
|
How many heart chambers do fish have?
|
2
|
|
|
What is the most abundant waste product of amphibians?
|
CO2
|
|
|
When does DNA synthesis take place? What phase specifically?
|
S phase
|
|
|
What phase to cells prepare to divide?
|
G2
|
|
|
What phase do we see the production of mitochondria, ribosomes, and much protein synthesis?
|
G1
|
|
|
What kingdom to bacteria and blue green algae belong to?
|
monera
|
|
|
What do osteoblasts mature into when trapped inside of bone?
|
mature into osteocytes
|
|
|
What are heavy and light chains linked by?
|
disulfide bonds
|
|
|
What is mullarian mimicry
|
its when an animal avoids insects that resemble one another such as a bee and a wasp and all can sting
|
|
|
Where do steroid receptors lay?
|
inside of the cell
|
|
|
Which way to leaf veins run in monocots?
|
parallel veins
|
|
|
Which way do leaf veins run in dicots?
|
netlike
|
|
|
What is primary succession?
|
occurs on areas lacking in soil and have not previously supported a community
|
|
|
What is secondary succession?
|
succession that occurs after a natural disaster such as a fire
|
|
|
What is the only optically inactive amino acid?
|
glycine
|
|
|
What is capacitation?
|
-required by a spermatozoa in the female oviduct and uterus that allows for egg penetration
-functional maturation of spermatozoa -during capacitation physiological changes occur in spermatazoa |
|
|
What are cilia and flagella made out of?
|
microtubules
|
|
|
secondary protein structure is characterized by?
|
the coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone
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Fatty acids enter the degradative pathway in as what?
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acetyl coa
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Are RBC smaller or larger than leukocytes?
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smaller
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What does the medulla oblongata do?
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regulates breathing, heart and blood vessel activity, swallowing, resting, and digestion
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What is an inducible system?
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The repressor binds to the operator, forming a barrier that prevents genes from being transcribed otherwise in a constant state of transcription
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The diameter of the eye (pupil) is controlled by what structure?
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iris
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What is the chapparel?
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characterized by stands of dense, spiny shrubs with tough leaves. Their arid climates, short growing seasons, low nutrient soil annd frequent fires result in abundance of limited shrubby vegetation
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In an electrolytic cell what is positive and what is negetive
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cathode - negetive
anode - positive |
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Where does PDC occur?
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mito matrix
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What are the end products of Krebs cycle? per glucose
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2 GTP
6 NADH 2 FADH 4 CO2 |
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What are carbohydrates monomers? What is their function
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monosacharides - energy
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what does it mean to be monocistronic?
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An mRNA molecule is said to be monocistronic when it contains the genetic information to translate only a single protein chain (polypeptide)
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What does the peroxisome do?
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eliminate free radicles
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What separates during anaphase
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sister chromatid
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What is an allele
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a different version of a gene
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What are two ways genes can be linked?
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If the Rf value is less than 50%
If observed ratios do not match the expected ratios - if it doesnt follow the 9:3:3:1 ratio they are linked |
