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257 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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cell division role in uni and multicellular orgs.
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uni= reproduction
multi= growth, development, replace old cells |
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karyokinesis
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nuclear division
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cytokinesis
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cell division (cytoplasm)
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interphase
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90% of cell life in this phase
chromos replicated > 2 sis chromatids |
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centromere
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holds together 2 idential sis chromatids
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chromatin
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uncoiled DNA
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indiv chromos at interphase
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not visible, uncondensed chromatin, DNA is uncoiled
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prophase
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chromos condense
centriole pair in animals sep to op pole nuclear membrane dissolves |
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centrioles at prophase
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separate and move to op poles
(in animales) |
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metaphase
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spindle aparatus fibers attach to each chromatid at centromere at metaphase plate
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anaphase
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centromeres split, sis chromatids separate to op poles
spindle fibers shorten |
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spindle fibers are composed of...
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microtubules
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telophase
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spindle apparatus dissapears
nuclear membrane forms chromos uncoil |
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cleavage furrow
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in animals
cell membrane indents along equator and pinches through the cell, separating 2 nuceli |
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cell division in animal vs plant diffs ( 3)
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animals (cleavage furrow), plants (cell plate)
plants dont have centrioles plants dont have spindle apparatus |
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homolog chromos
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chromos that code for same traits, one from each parents
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synapsis
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2 homolog chromos come together at prophase 1 in meiosis and intertwine forming tetrad
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tetrad
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4 chromatids (2 homolog chromos)
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crossing over
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in prophase 1, chromatids of homologs break and exchange pieces of DNA
increase diversity |
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recombinant chromos
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homolog chromos have swapped DNA during crossing over in prophase 1
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disjunction
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homolog chromos separate and are pulled to op poles of the cell
in anaphase 1 |
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mitosis vs meiosis
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mitosis 2n >2n, occurs in all cells, homologs dont pair; no crossing over
meiosis 2n>1N, occurs in sex cells, homolog chromos pair at metaphase plate; crossing over occurs |
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sexual reproduction
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fusion of 2 gametes from 2 diff parents
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gonads
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organs where gametes are produced
testes (males), ovaries (women) |
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testes
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produce sperm in tightly coiled seminiferous tubules,
surrounded by several layers of connective tissue |
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ovaries
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females gonads, produce gametes (eggs/oocytes)
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oocytes
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female eggs produced in gonad:ovaries
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hermaphrodites
(and 2 ex) |
species with both male and female gonads
i.e hydra & earthworm |
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spermatogenesis
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sperm production
occurs in seminiferous tubules diploid cells (spermatogonia) undergo meiosis > 4 haploid sperm |
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sperm structure
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elongated cell with head (mostly nucleus with paternal genome), tail (flaggellum; propels sperm), neck (has mitochondria for locomotion energy), body
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oogenesis
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production of female gametes in ovaries
1 diploid primary sex cell undergo meiosis > single mature egg...& polar bodies unequal cytokinesis >single daughter cell, 2ndary oocyte |
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polar body
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small cell with little more than the nucleus
rapidly disintergrate |
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mature ovum
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contains most of cytoplasm, RNA, organelles, and nutrients needed by embryo
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fertilization
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union of egg and sperm nuclei > zygote (2n)
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testes
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in external pouch called scrotum
2- 4 deg lower than body temp |
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route of sperm
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testes (seminiferous tubules) > vas deferens > ejaculatory duct > urethra> penis
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testes produce hormone...
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testosterone
in Leydig cells, scattered between seminierous tubules |
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testosterone
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produce by testes
regulates 2ndary male sex characteristics; faicl/pubic hair, voice change |
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ovaries are located...
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in abdominal cavity, below D.S
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ovaries consist of...
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thousands of follcles
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follicle
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multilayered sac of cells that contains, nourishes, and protects an immature ovum
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follicle cells produce...
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estorgen
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estrogen produced by...
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follicle cells
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testosterone produced by....
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testes
(in Leydig cells) |
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egg passage...
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ovum released from pvart into abdom cavity> oviduct > fallopian tube > upper end of uterus> lower (cervix)> vaginal canal
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uterus
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site of fetal development
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sperm is deposited in
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vaginal canal
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vaginal canal
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where sperm is deposited during intercourse
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ovaries synthesize
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estrogen and progesterone
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estrogen
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steroid hormone, stimulates female development of sex traits/ reproductive tract
thickens endometrium secreted by ovarian follicle and corpus luteum |
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endometrium
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uterine wall
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progesterone
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steroid hormone secreted by corpus luteum during luteal phase of menstrual cycle
develops and maintains endometrium walls in preparation for implantation |
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follicular phase
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stop menstrual flow from previous cycle
FSH from anterior pituitary develops follcle which grows and secretes estrogen |
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FSH
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follicle stimulating hormone
from anterior pituitary develops follicle which grows and secretes estrogen |
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ovulation
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midway through cycle, mature ovarian follicle bursts and releases an ovum
due to surge in LH and peak in estorgen |
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LH and estrogen cause...
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ovulation, ovarian follicle bursts and releases an ovum
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luteal phase
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after ovulation
lutenizing hormone causes ruptured follicle to develop into corpus luteum prepares endometrium for implantation |
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corpus luteum
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forming during luteal phase due to LH
secretes estrogen and progesterone |
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menstruation
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ovum not fertilized
corpus luteum atrophies E&P levels drop causing endometrium to slough off and |
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menses
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monthly menstrual flow due to decreased estrogen and progesterone lvls
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developing placenta produces hormone...
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hCG
human chorionic gonadotrophin - maintains corpus luteum and E&P that maintains uterus, ...until placenta takes over production of E&P |
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binary fission
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asexual reporduction
> 2 equal sized cells new cell wall and membrane drows inward along midline of cell |
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budding
(2 ex of org) |
unequal cytokinesis
cell membrane pinches to form new cell, smaller size i.e hydra, yeast |
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regeneration is/requires...
(2 ex) |
regrowth of lost/injured bodypart
needs central disk i.e hydra, starfish |
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parthenogenesis
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unfertilized egg > adult org
ie bees, ants males |
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sporophyte
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diploid stage of plant life cycle
reproduces asexually |
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gametophyte
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haploid generation of plant life cycle
produces gametes by mitosis reproduces sexually |
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alternation of generations
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plant life cycle
2n sporophyte (^ dominance over time) 1n gametophyte |
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an earthworm produces__ gametes
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eggs and sperm
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fragmentation
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breaking of body into several pieces, which develop into complete adults
accompanied by regeneration |
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parthogenesis haploid adults produce eggs...
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without undergoing meiosis
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whiptail lizards assume male sex when...
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estorgen lvls are low after ovulation,
are females when estogen is high |
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sequential hermaphroditism
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indiv reverses its sex during its lifetiime
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pheromones
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chem signals released by an org that influences the physiology/ behavior of other indiv of same species
small, water-soluble, volatile |
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spermatheca
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sac in which sperm may be stored for a year or more
(in some species) |
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cloaca
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opening to outside for digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts in non-mammal vertes
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follicle
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one egg cell surrounded by one or more layers of follicle cells which nourish and protect the developing egg cell
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ovulation
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egg cell is released from follicle
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how oviduct gets egg...
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has cilia on epithelium lining the duct to collect egg by drawing body fluid from body cavity into duct
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uterus
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thick, muscular organ that expands during pregnancy
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vuvla
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female external genitalia
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hymen
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thin piece of tissue that covers vaginal opening until 1st sexual intercourse
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Bartholin's gland
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located near vaginal opening
secretes mucus into vestibule to lubricate during intercourse |
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mammary glands
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glands with sacs of epithelial tissue that secretes milk that drains at nipple
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how oviduct gets egg...
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has cilia on epithelium lining the duct to collect egg by drawing body fluid from body cavity into duct
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uterus
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thick, muscular organ that expands during pregnancy
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vuvla
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female external genitalia
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Bartholin's gland
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located near vaginal opening
secretes mucus into vestibule to lubricate during intercourse |
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mammary glands
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glands with sacs of epithelial tissue that secretes milk that drains at nipple
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Leydig cells
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scattered between seminiferous tubules
produce testosterone |
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epididymis
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coiled tubes next to testes where sperm is held
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ejaculation path
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sperm propelled from epididymis through muscular vas deferens > ejaculatory duct > urethra
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vas deferens
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2 ducts that run behind urinary bladder to seminal vesicle ( join forming ejaculatory duct)
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seminal vesicle
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2
gives semen 60% of its volume thick, yellow, alkaline has muscus and fructose prostaglandins -stimulate uterine contractions |
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prostate gland
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largest gland
secretes products into urethra think, milky, anticoagulant enzymes alkaline |
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bulbourethral glands
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pair along urethra, below prostate
secrete clear mucus that neutralizes acid urine in uretha aka Cowper's glands |
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accessory glands of male reproductive sys
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seminal vesicles (2) > prostate gland > Bulbourethral glands (2)
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prepuce
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foreskin,
fold of skin that covers human's glans penis |
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vasocongestion
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filling of tissue with blood
^ blood flow through arteries sexual response |
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myotonia
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increased muscle tension
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estrus
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"in heat"
when vagina allows mating time when females very receptive to sexual activity |
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oogenesis stages
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oogonia > mitosis > primary oocytes, in follicle until puberty > FSH at puberty causes follicle meiosis 1, stop at metaphase 2= 2ndary oocyte > released at ovulation
meiosis continues when fertilized |
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acrosome
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head of sperm tip has enzymes that help sperm penetrate egg
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spermatogenesis
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spermatogonia > primary spermatocyte > meoisis 1 , 2ndary speramtocyte > meoisis 2, spermatids
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GnRH
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goandotrophin- releasing hormone secreted by hypothalamus
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FSH and LH secreted by...
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anterior pituitary
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FSH and LH control hormones...
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estrogen and progesterone
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GnRH stimulates,,,,
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pituitary gland to secrete FSH and LH
(follicular stage) |
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high estrogen lvls stimulates secretion of...
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hypothalamus release of GnRH
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proliferative phase of uterine cycle
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high estrogen ^ growing follicles, ^ endometrium to thicken
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secretory phase of uterine cycle
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endometrium continues to thicken and becomes more vascularized, and develops galnds that secrete glyogen-rich fluid
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FSH (in males)
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released by anterior pituitary
acts on Sertolli cells, which nourish developing sperm |
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LH (in males)
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acts on Leydig cells, ^ testosterone
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what is principle of induction in vertebrates?
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Induction is the process by which one part of an embryo causes adjacent tissues or parts to change form or shape
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bloodtype AB
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can receive type A, B or O blood
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what is codominance?
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when a heterozygote express the phenotype of two or more alleles in equal amounts. for example, people with AB blood type
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in humans, fertilization of egg by sperm occurs where?
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Eggs released by ovary they travel through the Fallopian tubes (where fertilization occurs) then into the Uterus (where implantation occurs)
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Calcitonin
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hormone released by thyroid
decreases blood calcium counteract PTH effect on kidneys (vit D acts on intestines, absorb Ca2+), and bones CalciTONIN, tones down CA2+ lvls |
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gestation
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condition of carrying embryo in uterus
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conception
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in humans, fertilization of egg by sperm
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fertilization in humans occurs...
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in oviduct
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cleavage
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rapid cell divisions w/o growth during early embryonic growth
embryo stays same size converts zygote > ball of cells small cells = blastomeres |
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blastocyst
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sphere of cells containing cavity (in mammals)
~ 1 week after fertilization has inner cell mass which develops into embryo mammal version of blastula |
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blastocyst does what?
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implant into endometrium
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embryo secretes hormone...
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human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG)
maintain E and P secretion by corpus luteum (takes over LH, from pituitary) |
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trophoblast
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outter layer of the blastocyst that intermingles with endometrium
> form placenta |
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outer layer of blastocyst
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trophoblast
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placenta
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disk-shaped organ
has embryonic and maternal blood vessels |
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blood get to embryo through
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umbilical vein
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blood from embryo travels in _ to get to placenta
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umbilical artery
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organogenesis
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development of body organs
first trimester (mainly) |
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fetus
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embryo at 8 wks
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in second trimester...
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hCG lvls decline, corpus luteum disintergrates, placenta takes over production of Progesterone
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fetal capillaries project into...
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maternal portion of placenta
blood pools in endometrium |
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fetal capillaries are in...
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chorionic villi in placenta
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labor is?
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strong, rhythmic contraction of uterus that expel baby out of uterus and vagina duing childbirth
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oxytocin's role
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produced by fetus
stimulates powerful contractions by smooth muscles of uterus stimulate placenta to secrete prostaglandins |
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prostaglandins role
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increase/enhance contractions of smooth uterus muscle
oxytocin stimulate |
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parturition
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birth
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labor stages
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1. opening up and thining of cervix, dilation
2. expulsion/delivery of baby 3. delivery of placenta |
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lactation
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postnatal care in mammals
decreased progesterone allow prolactin secretions |
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prolactin
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after birth
stimulates milk production |
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oxytocin controls...
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^ uterus smooth muscle contractions
controls release of milk from mammary glands |
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birth control
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synthetic estrogen and progesterone
stops release of GnRH by hypothalamus, decreasing FSH (prevents follicle maturation) and LH from pituitary (prevents ovulation) |
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progestin
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prevents fertilization by thickening woman's cervical mucus so it blocks sperm from entering uterus
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tubal ligation
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women tie off section of oviducts to prevent eggs from traveling to uterus
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sterilization types
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tubal ligation (women)
vasectomy (men) |
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vasectomy
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cutting of each vas deferens to prevent sperm from entering urethra
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hormone of pregnancy test
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human chorionic gonadotrophin
acts as LH to maintain corpus luteum .:P&E |
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production of progesterone
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corpus luteum > human chorionic gonadotrophin (by embryo) > placenta
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what is preformation?
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idea that sperm/egg contains an embryo, preformed mini adult
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cytoplasmic determinants
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maternal substances in egg that influences course of early development by regulating expression of genes that affect developmental fate of traits
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cell differentiation
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specialization of cells in their structure and function
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morphogenesis
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process where animal takes shape (forms structure of org) and the differentiated cells end up in appropiate locations
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blastula
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hollow ball of cells
zygote undergoes cleavage > blastula ...becomes blastocyst |
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blastomeres
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small cells formed during cleavage
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morula
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cluster of cells from first 5-7 divisions of cleavage
blastocoel begins to form (fluid-filled cavity) |
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blastocoel
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fluid-filled cavity
begins to form in morula finished forming morula > blastula |
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blastula
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hollow ball of cells
has blastocoel (fluid-filled cavity 6 |
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yolk
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stored nutrients
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gastrula
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3 layered embryo
layer = germ layers (endo, ecto,mes-derm) |
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ectoderm
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outer layer of gastrula
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mesoderm
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fills space between ectoderm and endoderm
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endoderm
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lines embryonic digestive tract
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archenteron
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endoderm-lined cavity
formed during gastrulation develops into digestive tract |
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blastospore
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opening of archenteron in gastrula that develops into mouth (in protostomes) or anus (in deuterostomes)
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notochord
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formed from dorsal mesoderm that condenses above the archenteron
flexible rod that runs along dorsal axis of animal |
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neural tube
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tube of cells running along dorsal axis of body
dorsal to notochord notochord signals cause neural plate in ectoderm > CNS |
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neural crest
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band of cells along border of where neural tube piches off from ectoderm
migrate to become PNS |
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somite
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paired mesoderm, lateral to notochord of vert embryo
somites + notochord > vertebrae |
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amnion
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protects embryo in fluid-filled cavity
prevents dehydration and cushions from shock |
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allantois
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disposal sac for metabolic wastes produced by embryo
also functions with chorion as respiratory organ in mammals: in umbilical cord, forms blood vessels that transport oxygen and nutrients from placenta > embryo |
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chorion
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exchange gases between embryo and surrounding air
functions with allantois membrane |
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yolk sac
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has blood vessels to transport nutrients from yolk to embryo
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epiblast
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upper layer of cells of the inner cell mass of blastocyst
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hypoblast
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lower layer of cells of the inner cell mass of blastocyst
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induction
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interaction among embryonic cells influence their fate
i.e by causing change in gene expression |
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totipotent
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capable of developing into all cell types found in the adult
first cleavage is asymetrical w. 2 blastomeres receiving 2 diff cytoplasmic determinants |
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cleavage path (in mammals)
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zygote > morula > cells differentiate (trophoblast and embryoblast/inner cell mass/blastocoel cavity) [blastocyst] > gastrula
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structure of blastocyst
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outer layer; trophoblast
inner cell mass/ embryoblast bastocoel (fluid-filled cavity) |
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Sertoli cells
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specialized cells of seminiferous tubules where speratogenesis occurs
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spermatogenesis occurs...
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in Sertoli cells of seminiferous tubules
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spermatogonia > ....sperm
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spermatogonia> miosis (primary spermatocyte) 2n > meiosis 1 (spermatids), > meiosis 2...mature into spermatids (connected by cytoplasmic bridge) n > gain flagellum (sperm)
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sperm become motile in...
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epididymis
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oogenesis begins when?
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in embryo
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spermatogenesis begins when..?
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puberty
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oogonia/oogonium>....egg
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oogonia> meiosis stops at prophase 1 (primary oocytes 2n)
> at puberty, FSH develops follicles, finish 1st meiotic cycle ( n secondary oocyte) + 1st polar body= oocyte/egg STOP!! meiosis 2 stops at metaphase2; completed when ovulated occyte is fertilized by sperm (+ 2nd polar body) = ovum! |
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endometrium cycle stages
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menstruation
proliferative phase secretory phase menstruation |
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deuterostome evolutionary line
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cleavage is indeterminant, each cell can develop into a separate org
cleavage is radial |
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protostome evolutionary line
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determinate cleavage, cells specialize early in development
spiral cleavage |
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gastrula
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when blastula develops distinct 3 layers (ecto, meso and endoderm)
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Ectoderm forms....
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S - sweat glands
E- epidermis E - eye (lens and cornea) N - NS T- tooth enamel H - hair E - epithial lining of mouth/rectum N- nails |
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Mesoderm forms...
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S- skeletal system
M- muscle A - adrenal cortex L - lining of body cavity L- lymph system |
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Endoderm forms...
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P- pancreas
E - epithelial lining of digestive tract T- thyroid R- reproductive tract U - urinary tract L- liver E- epithial lining of respiratory tract |
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prostaglandins
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stimulate uterine contractions to move sperm
secreted by seminal vesicles |
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vitelline layer is..
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glycoprotein layer surrounding plasma membrane of oocyte
aka zona pellucida |
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zona pellucida is ...?
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aka vitelline layer
glycoprotein layer surrounding plasma membrane of oocyte |
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embryo polarity
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vegetal pole - more yolk/ stored food
animal pole |
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hormone
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chem signal that is secreted into circulatory system and communicated regulatory msgs within the body
body's long-distance chem regulators |
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target cell
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equipped to respond to a specific hormone
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NS
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conveys electrical signals along neurons
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endocrine system
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hormones coordinate slow, but long acting responses to stimuli
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endocrine glands
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ductless glands
secrete chem msgers directly into extracellular fluid |
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neurosecretory cells
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specialized nerve cells that release hormones('neurohormones') into blood
(connection between NS and ES) |
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epinephrine
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fight-or-flight hormone
produced by adrenal medulla -also chem signal conveys msgs between neurons in NS breaks down glycogen > glucose |
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efferent signal
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outgoing signal from control center that directs effector to respond
acts on particular effector tissue and elicts specific changes |
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signal transduction
signal transduction pathway |
binding of a signal molecule to a receptor protein triggers events in target cell
- series of changes in cellular proteins that converts extracellular chem signal to specific intracellular response |
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melanocytes
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skin cells
contain dark brown pigment melanin in frogs MSH causes darkening of skin by dispearsion of pigment molecules in melanophore cells |
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water-soluble hormone binds to
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receptor protein on surface of target cell
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lipid-soluble hormone binds to
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intracellular receptor, in cytoplam or nucleus
hormone-receptor complex move > nucleus and stimulate transcription of genes |
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paracrine signaling
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local regulators convey msgs between neighbouring cells
target cells nearby |
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nitric oxids (NO)
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local regulator
when blood O2 lvls drop, endothelial cells in blood vessel walls synthesize and release NO which relaxes smooth muscle/dilates vessels ^ blood flow |
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hypothalamus
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gland, hormones released from posterior pituitary and hormones that regulate the anterior pituitary
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pituitary gland
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posterior- releases neurohormones made in hypothalamus
anterior |
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ADH
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anti-diuretic hormone
promotes retention of H2) by kidneys regulated by h20/salt balance |
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HGH
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human growth hormone
stimulates growth and metabolic functions...^bone& cartilage growth regulated by hypothalamus secreted by anterior pituitary |
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PRL
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prolactin
stimulates milk production and secretion reg by hypothal |
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TSH
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stimulates thyroid gland
reg by thyroxine in blood and hypothal hor |
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ACTH
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adrenocorticotrophic hormone
stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids reg by glucocorticoids and hypotha hor |
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Thyronine (T4)
Triiodothryonine (T3) |
secreted by thyroid
stimulate and maintain metabolic processes Reg by TSH |
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PTH
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parathyroid hormone
secreted by parathyroid gland raises blood Calcium lvl by causing osteoclasts to decompose mineralized matrix of bone and release Ca2+ converts Vit D in kidneys to active hormonal form reg by cal lvls in blood |
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insulin
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secreted by pancreas
lowers blood glucose lvl reg by glucose lvl in blood |
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glucagon
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secreted by pancreas
raises blood glucose lvl reg by glucose in blood |
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adrenal medulla
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secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine
reg by NS |
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glucocorticoids
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raise blood glucose
secreted by adrenal cortex reg by ACTH |
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mineralocorticoids
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secreted by adrenal cortex
promote absorption of Na+ and excretion of K+ in kidneys reg by K+ in blood |
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melatonin
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secreted by pineal gland
reg biological rhythms reg by light/dark cycles |
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neurohypophysis
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posterior pituritary
secretes oxytocin and ADH |
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tropic hormones
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hormones that regulate the function of endocrine organs
i.e FHS/LH, TSH, ACTH, Prolactin, MSH, Endorphin, HGH |
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neurosecretory cells of hypothalamus > ...
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posterior pituitary
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anterior pituitary secretes...
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HGH, PRL, FSH, LH, TSH, ACTH
(MSH, melanocyte-stimulating hormone, in fish/frogs) B-endorphins- bind to brain receptors to dull pain preception |
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Grave's Disease
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hyperthyroidism
high body temp, sweating, weight loss, high bp, protruding (bulging) eyes |
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goiter
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deficiency of iodine in diet
thyoid gland cannot secrete enough T4/ T3 to neg feedback loop... .: TRH from hypotha &TSH from anterior pituitary secreted...thyroid enlarges |
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tetany
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skeletal muscles contract compulsively due to low blood Ca 2+ lvls
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osteoclasts
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stimulated by PTH
decomposed mineralized matrix of bone and releases Ca2+ into blood |
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islets of Langerhans
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clusters of endocrine cells scattered throughout exocrine tissue of pancreas.
Each islet has alpha and beta cells |
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alpha cells produce...
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hormone glucagon
Alpha, Add, Glucose, Glucagon |
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beta cell produce...
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hormone insulin
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insulin role...
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lowers blood glucose by stimulating all body cells, except brain, to take up glucose from blood
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diabetes mellitus
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deficieny in insulin in target tissues
ppl have high glusocse in blood, excrete glucose in urine autoimmune...detroyed beta cells |
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cortisol
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glucocorticoid of adrenal cortex
anti-inflammatory effects , supress immune system proteins/fats broken down > glucose, ^ blood glucose |
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aldosterone
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secreted by adrenal cortex
mineralocorticoid stimulates kidneys to reabsorbe Na ions and water from filtrate, ^ bp and volume |
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Brain hormone
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neurosecretory cells in insect brain produces BH,
stimulates release of ecdysome |
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Ecdysone hormone
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secreted from prothoracic gland,
reg by Brain Hormone of neurosecretory cells promotes molting and development of adult traits in insect |
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Juvenile hormone
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secreted by corpis allata
promotes retention of larvel traits in insect when lvls wane, ecdysone produce pupa, metamorphosis gives adult form |
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corticosteroids
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secreted by adrenal cortex
stimulated by ACTH - glucocorticoids; cortisol& cortisone (^ blood glucose by promoting protein breakdown ) mineralocorticoids; aldosterone (regulate Na/K lvls and water by reabsorption in nephron, ^ bp & blood volume - sex hormones; androgens |
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adrenal cortex levels (3)
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outter = glomerulosa, secretes aldosterone
middle = fasciculata, secretes cortisol inner = reticularis, secretes anddrogens Gee For - cortisol Real |
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catecholamines
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secreted by adrenal cortex
epinephrine and norepinephrine |
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hormones of anterior pituitary (6)
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F- FSH
L- LH A- ACTH T- TSH P- Prolactin I- (ignore) G - GH |
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acromegaly
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overproduction of GH in adults
overgrowth of bone |
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somatotropin
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= GH
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cretinism
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hypothyroidism in newborn
have mental retardation and short stature |
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renin
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hormone secreted by kidneys when blood volume falls
cahnges plasma protein from angiotenosin 1to angiotensin 2, which stimulate adrenal cortex to release aldosterone |
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gastrin
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injested food causes stomach to release
causes glands to release HCl |
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secretin
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released by small intestine when acidic food enters from stomach
stimulates secretion of alkaline bicarbonate soln from pancreas |
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cholecystokinin
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released from small intestine when fats are present
causes contraction of gallbladdr and release of bile into s.intestine |
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cyclic AMP
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second msger, relays msgs from extracellilar peptide hormone (first msgers) & initates successive rsn in cell
conversion of ATP > cAMP catylyzed by enyme adenylate cyclase cAMP is inactivated by cytoplasmic enzyme: phosphodiesterase |
