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127 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Ethnical Periods (Lewis Henry Morgan)
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1. Theory of Societal Evolution
•Theory: Humans progress to civilization through stages of savagery and barbarism. • Method: Compare societies at different levels of evolution to reveal universal evolutionary path. • Assumption: “living fossils” reflect what more advanced societies looked like in the past. 2. Unilineal evolution: “natural and necessary” 3. Societies can be compared irrespective of time 4. 2 types of government: societas and civitas |
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Morgan (two types of government)
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2. societas: based on kinship (band/tribe)
Gens (patrilineal clan) as basis of organization. Complexity evolves thru phratry (descent group of related clans), tribe, and confederacy of tribes. Civitas: based on territory (state/chiefdom) • Township/ward as basis of organization. Complexity evolves thru county/province, nation. Individuals dealt with through property relations |
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Service's sociopolitical typologies
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1. Band - foraging
2. Tribe - horticulture 3. Chiefdom - pastoralism 4. State - industrial simplistic but useful |
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Power
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the ability to exercise one's will over others
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Authority
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the socially approved use of power
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Sociopolitical correlates
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1. Band (egaltarian) : band leaders lead by example, no power or authority
2. Tribal cultivators: little power and authority, lead by example and generosity 3. Chiefdom: permanent political official, much power and authority |
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Stratum endogamy
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elites marry elites, commoners marry commoners
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Order of social stratification
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LEAST STRATIFIED
1. band 2. tribe 3. chiefdom 4. state MOST STRATIFIED |
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Three dimensions of social stratification
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1. economic status (based on wealth)
2. political status (based on power) 3. social status (based on prestige) |
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Hegemony
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dominance of one social group over another by means of an ideology that justifies why a stratified social order (i.e. by socioeconomices, race/ethnicity) is in everybody's best interest
GOAL: get subordinate groups to comply with stratified social order without using coercion |
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Resisting Hegemonic Power (James Scott)
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1. public transcript
2. hidden transcript 3. weapons of the weak: hidden transcripts can be transformed into public expressions against hegemony |
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public transcript
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public interactions between powerful and subordinate
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hidden transcript
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Critique of power by the subordinate group that occurs in domains hidden from the eyes of the dominant group.
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means of social control
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formal means
informal means |
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Formal means of social control
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expressed through law as rules and regulations against deviant behavior
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informal means of social control
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exercised without explicitly stating rules, through customs and norms
1. moral injunctions 2. gossip and ostracism 3. satire 4. education and propaganda 5. shaming/humiliating |
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Learning the nightmare (Henry)
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- the function of education is not to foster creativity, but too instill conformity
- learn to fear failure: "the essential nightmare" drives them away from failure and towards success |
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The Myth of Global Ethnic Conflict (Bowen)
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Problematic assumptions
1. ethnic identity is ancient and unchanging (a primordalist view) 2. ethnic identities motivate people to kill and persecute others 3. ethnic diversity inevitable leads to inter-ethnic violence COUNTER ARGUMENTS 1. Identity is rarely important in everyday life, it is fluid and changed throughout your lifetime. Colonial powers and post-colonial states formed more rigid "ethnic identities" in order to control populations 2. Leaders mobilize people to create conflict. (step 1): instill sense of ethnic hatred through propaganda. (step 2): encourage/coerce people to participate in execution 3. Countries where one ethnic group controls and domicates others are more prone to violence (Sri Lanka, Rwanda). Countries where power is dispersed among ethnic groups are less prone to violence (Malaysia, Indonesia) |
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Conflict in Rwanda (Bowen)
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* Prior to Belgians - tutsi and hutus were fluid
* belgians created racial distinction * Identity solidified through census and ID cards * tutsis privileged through for indirect rule - working for gov. * Post colonial: struggle for power, tutsi/hutu competition, identity basis of who to kill |
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Conflict in Sri Lanka, Ceylon (Bowen)
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* Tamil and Sinhalese
* coexisted for centuries despite differences * In order to rule, British colonialists created new rigid boundaries and categories became fixed * Post Colonialism: System created that discriminated against the Tamil. Tamils responded in creating the LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam) * war raged for separate state |
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Top Down Conflicts
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"it is fear and hatred generated from the top, and not ethnic differences, that finally cause people to commit acts of violence"
Step 1: instill sense of ethnic hatred through propaganda step 2: encourage/coerce people to participate in persecution |
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Birth of Biometrics (Macquire)
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*Recognizing humans on basis of physical or behavioral traits
* Macquire explores genealogy of biometric security to show it as "an invisible chain that held past populations in strikingly contemporary ways" * Biometrics had a utopian vision - "crime would thus be rooted out, elections purified, immigration laws effectively enforced..." * Control of populations - mobilizes some, immobilizes others *Galton - fingerprints * Bertillon - photographed, finger-printed and collected other data on criminals * Governmentality and Panopticism (Foucualt) |
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Governmentality (Foucault)
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*methods used by governments to produce citizens who act in accordance with gov. policies and objectives
* ideologies and techniques through which subjects are governed |
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Panopticism (Foucault)
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"...he inscribes in himself the power relation in which he simultaneously plays both roles; he becomes the principle of his own subjection"
*Panopticon: observation tower in center, walls contain cells of inmates who can easily be scrutinized by guards * with biometrics and biosecurity, the body becomes both a target and instrument of control |
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Say "Cheese" (Shearing and Stenning)
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Disney World
*Mechanisms of social control built into park *"control strategies are embedded in both environmental features and structural relations" * ARGUMENT: "people today are seduced to conform by the pleasures of consuming the goods that corporate power has to offer" |
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Panopticism (Foucault)
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"...he inscribes in himself the power relation in which he simultaneously plays both roles; he becomes the principle of his own subjection"
*Panopticon: observation tower in center, walls contain cells of inmates who can easily be scrutinized by guards * with biometrics and biosecurity, the body becomes both a target and instrument of control |
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Say "Cheese" (Shearing and Stenning)
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Disney World
*Mechanisms of social control built into park *"control strategies are embedded in both environmental features and structural relations" * ARGUMENT: "people today are seduced to conform by the pleasures of consuming the goods that corporate power has to offer" |
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A.R. Radcliffe Brown (as an anthropologist)
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*Scientific anthro: search for universal laws to explain human behavior
*Proponent of British Functionalism: Social structure is the key framework for comparative analysis goal to understand how social institutions function. |
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"On Joking Relationships" (A.R. Radcliffe Brown)
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*"Permitted Disrespect"
- asymmetrical or symmetrical - mitigates and preempts conflicts *SOURCES OF CONFLICT - disjuction: husband is outsider to wife's family, potential conflict -Conjunction: Wife's continuing relationship with own family, interest in welfare = potential conflict 2 WAYS TO AVOID CONFLICT *Formal relationship: extreme mutual respect (in-laws) * joking relationship: mutual disrespect POINT: formal and joking relationships are common methods for preempting conflicts |
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Asymmetrical joking relationships
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A required to tease B; B required to take no offense
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Symmetrical joking relationships
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A and B tease each other; neither takes offense (male banter)
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Formal relationship
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extreme mutual respect. Limitation on direct contact
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joking relationship
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mutual disrespect, playful antagonism prevents hostility
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Descent group
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a social unit whose members claim common ancestry
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Descent
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unilineal (patrilineal, matrilineal) or bilineal
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Matrilineal descent
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female headed household
*descent traced through maternal side *inheritance through mothers side |
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Patrilineal descent
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male headed households
*descent traced through paternal side *inheritance through fathers side |
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Previous societies studied for social and political structures
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Nuer (Evans-Prichard), Yanomamo (Chagnon)
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Consanguineal Kin
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*"blood" relatives
Parents - not step or adoptvie Brothers and sisters - providing 1 common biological parent Uncles/aunts - but not all of them |
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Affinal Kin
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Through marriage
+step parents, step siblings, some uncles and aunts, wife or husband, in-laws |
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Fictive Kin
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through affection
god-parents adoptive children "uncle" charlie sorority sister etc |
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Patrilocality
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when a couple marries they move to their husband's household/community
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matrilocality
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when couple marries they move to wife's household/community
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neolocality
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when a couple marries they establish new, independent residence
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incest
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LEGAL DEFINITION: aggravated incest is: marriage, sexual intercourse, or sodomy with a person who is under 18 years or age and who is known to be biologically related.
*BUT difficult to define cross culturally...what about cousin? - U.S. NOOO - Nubri (Nepal) this type of marriage is preferred |
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Bridewealth
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paid to bride's family by groom's family. compensates bride's family for loss of family member
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dowry
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paid to groom's family by bride's family. Compensates groom's family for burden of accepting their daughter
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Sororate
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the custom whereby a widower marries the SISTER of his deceased wife
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Levirate
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the custom whereby a WIDOW marries the BROTHER of her deceased husband
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endogamy
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the custom of marrying within a social group to which a person belongs
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exogamy
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the custom of marrying outside a social group to which a person belongs
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Things that definitions of family have in common
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-- who they are
- how they are related - what they do |
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Family of orientation
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family in which one is born and grows up.
*critical relationships = parents and siblings |
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Family of procreation
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formed when one marries and has children. Critical relationships = spouse and kids
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Family system (Skinner)
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customary, normative manner in which family processes unfold
*conjugal (nuclear): 2 generations, neo-local marriage, monogamous *Stem (extended): 2+ generations, 1 marriage per generation (monogamous or polygynous) , majority of inheritance to those who remain in household *Joint (extended): 2+ generations, 2+ marriages per generation, majority of inheritance to those who reamin in household POINT: understanding the family system provides one with the tools to analyze: - household economic strategies - family management strategies - inter-generational relations - demographic processes - marital norms - gender roles, etc. |
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What is the American Family System?
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- max 2 generations (parents+kids)
- monogamous, neolocal marriage - equal inheritance among siblings regardless of gender |
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Changing household arrangements
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*there are a lot of people these days who do not live in a fixed housing arrangement
- nonfamily households include college kids, widowers, cohabiting etc. - lots of transitions in life these days *the system remains the same, but we go through more transitions along the way |
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Land of the Walking Marriage (Yuan and Mitchell)
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Mosuo - matrilineal society
*no social or economic obligations between father and children Advantages: 1. all siblings contribute to welfare of household 2. No potential conflicts between mother-in-law and daughter-in-law *sisi - walking back and forth * males come and mate and then any children born of that visit are taken care of my woman and her family and male siblings etc. |
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Theories of Social evolution (relationships)
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*savagery - promiscuous, intercourse (Mosou)
*barbarism - formal marriage, but few rules *civilization - monogamy |
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Polygany
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1 man with 2+ woman
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Polyandry
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1 woman with 2+ men
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When Brothers Share a Wife (Golstein)
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Tibetans' perspective
- polyandry = means to ensure family unity - keep household resources, don't divide land, keep wealth concentrated etc. *fraternal polyandry - brothers take same wife Childbirth - eldest brother in family is always referred to as father, younger as uncle *unintended effect of limiting population growth. many women are excluded from marriage Prediction: people will abandon polyandry when other income earning opportunities become available (yes...modern family system) |
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Tibetan Family System
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*patrilocal post-marital residence (women marry out)
*patrilineal inheritance: men get land and animals from fathers, women get dowry and jewlery |
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Modern Tibet Family System
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Stem (extended)
EXAMPLE: 2 daughters married out 1 daughter kept (kept near, choice or non- marriage) Son - sent out by marriage of choice *household diversification strategy: physically separated but still tied to family (rural-urban connections, multiple income sources) |
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Persistance of Polygamy (Egan)
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1890's: mormon church denounced polygamy and Utah outlawed the practice
*polygany still survives in clans Opponents say... - lack of female autonomy - pedophilia - incestuous unions - statutory rape - appointed marriages Supporters say... - men are wired to multiple partners - men have natural urge - polygany keeps sex within marriage - offers sense of security and sisterhood among women ethnocentric bias? |
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Arranging a Marriage in India (nanda)
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- contrary to the American ideal of individualism and the notion that a successful marriage is based on romantic love
Points: - marriage = family decision - emphasis on quality of brides family - emphasis on extended family values - modern aspirations, traditional values "my marriage is too important to be arranged by such an inexperienced person as myself" Changing Norms and expectations - seen in commercials we saw in class - "get used to choice" |
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Marriage distinction between India and Tibet
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India
- marriage (arranged) - "love match" (not arranged Tibet - Changsa (marriage) - Kha tug ("their mouths met") |
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Examples of Same Sex marriage
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1. Native American Berdaches (men who take on female roles)
2. Nandi of Kenya (women marry women to perpetuate matrilineal descent group_ 3. Azande of pre-colonial Africa (men who cannot afford wives marry other men) *statistically rare |
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Sex and Consequences (Wood)
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- institutionalized homosexuality always has negative consequences
- Use the Etoro as evidence for such trends - low birth rates - leads to pedophile - demystifying procreation *twisted logic Methodological point:striving to understand a different culture/lifestyle by examining members' beliefs and motivations. Does not preclude one from making moral judgements |
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Expression of love in same sex couples
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- all expressions are essentially the same
- "act" love in the same way that a heterosexual couple would |
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Focus on the Fridge (Blackman)
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*from luxury to necessity; nearly universal in US households
*used to be more expensive than a car *used to export ice (19th century) from USA to the west indies etc. Middle class refrigerator as "ritual space" - place to display images, family history, values - Command and control center for organizing family's domestic routine Refrigerator rights - who is allowed inside? Not having to ask permission means you have crossed an age threshold. Measure of kinship, social distance, and age |
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Sex
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biological differences that are more or less unalterable
*biologically determined |
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Gender
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the traits that a culture assigns to and inculcates in males and females
*socially constructed |
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Margaret Mead
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Culture and personality: how does culture influence one's personality
- student of boas and benedict Contributions: - Gender roles, stereotypes, and stratification are socially and culturally constructed - comparative approach to reject notion that all male-female differences are biologically determined - if there were innate male/female differences, they should be universal and felt in all societies and invariable (through time) * political system, religious system, and art and literature inform values. These values inform personality |
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Predecessors of Mead
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*boas - historical particularism
* Benedict - culture shapes personality of individual |
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The Social Construction of Gender (Lorber)
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* we take gender for granted on a daily basis
* we "do" gender without thinking...only think about it when there are disruptions |
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Gender Construction
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* birth - sex becomes gender through naming, dressing, toys etc
*once gender is evident, people treat them accordingly *gender behaviors and roles change (created and recreated through social interaction) * if they were biologically determined they would be immutable but vary cross culturally and across time |
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Gender Roles
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*The tasks and activities a culture assigns to the sexes
- division of labor (women do sustaining/education and men do recreational/entertainment activities) |
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Gender stereotypes
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strongly held ideas about the characteristics of males and females
Examples: Men and handiness, women and bad drivers |
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Gender stratification
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Rights and responsibilities allocated according to gender (ordering of society)
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Domestic-Public Dichotomy
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differentiation between home and outside world
- strong differentiation correlated with more gender stratification (higher status for men) |
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Gender
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*stratification, stereotypes, and roles are all part of one system that interact and reinforce one another
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Timeline of domestic-public dichotomy
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Late 1800's: women as valued members of workforce, but pushed out of workforces when immigrants came
Gender stereotype of women as weaker sex WWII - production went up, men left, women stepped up (rosie the riveter) Men returned --> 1950's-1960's women stays at home and is domestic servant trend is becoming more egalitarian, but still not there |
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Intersex
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individuals who have both male and female biological traits
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transgender
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individuals whose gender ID is different than biological sex and gender ID assigned in infancy
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Hijra
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- "third" gender in India
- often intersex - low status and marginal - preform at weddings and birth ceremonies |
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Other examples of de-emphasizing sexuality and gender roles
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*catholicism - culturally approved asexuality (clergy)
* buddhism - asexual roles * tibetan nuns and monks remove gender markers (may still have gender roles though) |
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Sex and Social Control (formal Means)
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* jim crow prohibitions
* statutory rape *beastality *sodomy (forbids homosexuality) |
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Sex and Social Control (informal means)
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*how would you be judged?
* STDs? * fear of being "outed" by PDA |
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Sex and culture
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- sex is a natural act surrounded by cultural customs
*art of seduction - learned through direct transmission and observation *sex and ads - explicit and implicit ads |
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A Woman's Curse (small)
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*menstruation - continual reminder of female reproductive potential and role, taboos
*Taboos - no sex, cannot cook or touch food, cannot visit sacred space or attend ritual, cannot touch mens items, segregated *effect: set them apart and mark them as impure...often found in lowland hindi societies - we have some informal means of segregation in our culture (avoid her, PMS etc) *A Dagon Village - menstrual Hut |
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Beverly Strassman's Hypothesis (menstrual hut)
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- lack of menstrual cycle implies woman is either...pregnant, lactating or menopausal
- info about menstruation can be used to track paternity *Dagon context - paternal info critical because of patrilineality Go to hut - menstruating stop going - pregnant or menopausal leave hut - ready to conceive |
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The taboo of the menstrual hut
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- established by men, backed by supernatural forces
- internalized and accepted by women until released from belief *hypothesis: certainly maintained by men |
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biology and health: implications of menstruation
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most of human history
- 110 cycles/life - late menarche (16-18) - many pregnancies - lactational amenorrhea Today: - 350-400 menstrual cycles - early menarch (12-14) - few pregnancies lack of lactational amenorrhea |
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Female Selective Abortion in Asia (Miller)
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*Normal sex ratio at birth (105 males/100 females)
*China - 120/100 at infancy (1978 - 1 child policy) *India - 126/100 *Korea - 114/100, but up to 229/100 by 4th child Commonalities: patrilineal, patrilocal (kinship system), prefer sons *Gender and Female Selective abortion - Gender ideology: women cannot perpetuate patrilineal descent - Gender Roles: Men more valuable as wage earners, women reside (patrilocality) - Gender stratification: men have more power Role of modernization - ultrasounds, abortions, lower fertility |
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Balanced Sex ratio as public good?
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- male dominated sex ratio ~ high violence
- human rights: can gender become a birth defect? |
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Korean, Chinese and Indian Immigrants in USA
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- sex ratio of first born is normal
- second is abnormal is first is a girl - similar trends not in blacks or hispanics or whites |
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One Child Policy Update - China
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- rural china's once child policy - 1 child if first is son
- 2 children if first is daughter |
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"Measuring up to Barbie" (Urla and Swedlund)
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*The "beauty myth"
- “an incredibly resilient visual and tactile model of femininity for pre-pubescent girls.” - tied in with industry *History - cold ward - symbolized: aspirations of prosperity, domesticity, rigid gender roles - continued to adapt to changing times *Points - control over body - playing with barbie leads to internalizing values of ideal body/size - girls link body shape to popularity and glamor - inability to realize the ideal negatively affects self esteem |
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Gendering Kids: Barbie (Urla and Swedlund)
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*through play - direct transmission and observation
*learning - connection between appearance and happiness, acceptance, lessons of getting ready for social events - anthropometry of Barbie - clinically anorectic |
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Ways we learn gender
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- barbie
- birthday parties - books other means of enculturation *but things are changing.... |
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Rituals of Manhood (Herdt)
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*Sambia Society - Papau New Guinea
- hunting-foraging (men hunt, women farm) - patrilocal, clan exogamy *Continual warfare: "...conditioned the values and masculine stereotypes surrounding the male initiatory cult" *Manliness: strength "pivotal idea in male ethos", masculinity performed in battlefirled *Gender stratification: women are dangerous and polluting, Men are superior *Gender and Enculturation: Children raised by women is girls and men if boys *Becoming Male: nature provides male genitalia, but manliness induced through ritual. Separation from mother = essential |
LESSONS:
*example of society that draws major distinction between genders *example of gender construction through rituals *emphasis on manliness *gender stratifcation |
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Gender stratification in patrilocal vs. matrilocal societies
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* matrilocal - less gender stratification
*patrilocal - more gender stratification |
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"Ladies" Behind Bars (Coggeshall)
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*Gender redefined in prison context, reconstructed in prison
*REAL MEN: ability to fight, resist, protect women. Control *LADIES/QUEENS: come out voluntarily, control over self concept (high status). Autonomy *KIDS: kept in servitude, signifies owners power. Subordination *GUMPS/PUNKS: kept in servitude by gangs, property-prostituted. Gumps - turned out willingly, Punks - turned out unwillingly *DYKES: only women actually present, female guards, defined in non-feminine terms because of position of power - CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER |
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Wrestling with Manhood - how does wrestling influence manliness
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- wrestling is a soap opera for men
- Role models for men: emulating how to be a man - lots of other examples of extreme violence in media - Gender role: real men expected to be a bully ISSUE: why does the audience identify with the bully and not sympathize the bullied? Normalizing gender violence - example of gender stratification, violence against women arouses men BIG PICTURE: similar themese of dom. and gendered violence in Wrestling with Manhood (entertainment) and Ladies Behind Bars (containment) *No consequences only rewards |
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Social Stratification: Control based on economic system
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ability to withhold resources necessary for survival
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Social Stratification: control based on system of authority
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authority may be vested in political offices, kinship relationships, religious ideologies that give some people power over others
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Social Stratification: Control based on direct force
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Those who are stronger dominate the weaker
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An egalitarian society
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"social equality can be said to exist when everyone in a society has the same rights and perceived social value."
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History of egalitarian societies
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*Marx, Rousseau, Tocqueville
- presented as goal not a reality - out own declaration of Ind. "all men created equal" Ideology of communism - nobody should control the means of production, everybody equal, resources shared equally |
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competitive egaltarian
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-equality of opportunity, but not outcome
- theoretically, every individual has equal chance of success - republican? government...get out the way! |
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noncompetitive egaltarian
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equality of condition or outcome
leveling mechanisms ensure that resources are shared democratic? |
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formal definition of Gender Egalitarian Society
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"a society in which neither males not females, as GROUPS, controlled the ACTIONS of the oposite sex or the TERMS by which their actions and characteristics were JUDGED."
- "as groups": leaves possibility that individuals can exert control - actions: behavior - judged: ideology |
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Nature/culture argument (ortner)
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- women associated with nature (childbearing/rearing)
- men associated with culture (religion, politics, art) - Male associations given higher value/prestige |
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Man the Hunter argument (Friedl)
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- Among foragers, men provide and control distribution of meat (source of power and prestige)
- women actually gather more of the sustenance, but meat still valued more |
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Evolution from Egalitarian to Stratified
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Previous speculation that since women were "autonomous" in foraging societies, women were autonomous in our evolutionary past
- When people started to settle down and own property...property ownership = male dominance - women began to rely on males |
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How to study gender equality?
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- more emphasis on in-depth studies of gender in particular social and cultural settings
- gender equality is something that is hard to measure and quantify |
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General information of the Batek
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- Orang Asli ("original people"), small population ~800 people
- contentious relations with Malays - Studied by Endicott |
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Batek Demography
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- high infant mortality (25%)
- low fertility - low population density - low population growth |
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Operationalizing Variables
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Defining a variable (i.e. intelligence) in such a way that is can be measured
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Operationalizing Variables: Gender Ideology
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Is there a moral, political or religious ideology that elevates one gender and denigrates the other?
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Operationalizing Variables: Gender Roles
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Is there a distinct division of labor by gender? Is there a rigid barrier between gender roles? Is the labor of one gender valued more highly?
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Operationalizing Variables: Gender Stereotypes
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Are there strongly held ideas about male and female characteristics? What males/females can or cannot do? WHat is appropriate/inappropriate?
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Operationalizing Variables: Gender Stratification
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Are there rights and responsibilities allocated according to gender? Does one gender have more power and authority than the other gender?
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Battek and Gender: Findings
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1. Gender and Social Classification
- kinship terms often reflect age, not gender - personal names not gender specific - gender terms in regard to marriage 2. Origin Stories - no ideology that denigrates one gender or posits moral superiority of one gender 3. physiology - Souls are considered the same - blood smells diff...but not menstrual blood (contrast to Sambia (Herdt) and Dogon (Small)) 4. Religion/Ritual - superhuman beings both men/women - can both do rituals - can both be shamans - neither are considered guardians of religious knowledge or experts on religion |
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Ethical Principles of the Batek
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1. Personal Autonomy: just don't infringe on others'
2. Respecting Others 3. Helping Others: obligation to help disabled, children and elderly 4. Sharing Food: obligatory, expression of interdependence 5. Nonviolence/noncompetition |
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Power and Authority in the Batek
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*No formal means of social control
*informal means - ostracism |
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