Criminology 1

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6 Criteria for Classifying a Theory

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~internally consistent

~scope: range of phenomena it proposes to explain

~parsimony: consciousness and abstractness of a set of concepts and propositions

~testable by objective, repeatable evidence

~empirical falsification: must be open to evidence that may counter or disprove hypothesis

~empirical validity - extend to which a theory can be supported with gathered evidence

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Deterrence Theory

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Cesare Beccaria

~assumes a need for social order and that people make choices

~we fear punishment

~punishment that is proportional, certain, severe, and swift should reduce and deter crime

~focuses only on the formal punishment of crime

~absolute/general deterrence: punishment deters all offending (ex. jail time, fines)

~restricted/specific deterrence: punishment deters severity/frequency; intended to deter a specific person

severity of punishment does not have a consistently negative relationship with crime

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Rational Choice Theory

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~AKA "expanded deterrence theory"

~general theory of crime

~assumes society needs social order and that people make choices

~humans are hedonistic

~crime occurs when the benefits outweigh the costs

~costs: formal sanctions (punishment/deterrence) and informal sanctions (social stigma, losing a job, etc)

~benefits: tangible (money, cars, etc) and intangible (psychological, social standing, etc)

*clark and cornish

~involvement decisions: onset, habituation/persistence, desistance

~event decisions: target, place, type

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Routine Activities Theory

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~Cohen and Felson

~parsimonious, macro theory

~crime occurs when 3 things converge in time and space:

1. motivated offender

2. lack of a capable guardian

3. suitable target

~law enforcement can work to change 2&3, but not 1

~assumed that we are all motivated offenders because humans are hedonistic

~lack of capable guardian site most tested tenant

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UCR

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Uniform Crime Report

~Published yearly

~measures index crimes

~Reports crime by city, county, metropolitan statistical area, and US geographical divisions

~includes cleared crimes

~all unfounded or false reports are eliminated

~includes aggregate measure of suspect index crimes and part II crimes

~methods to express data: # crimes reported to police, crime rates per 100,000 ppl, changes in crime rates over time

~only worst index crime reported, if committed multiple

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NIBRS

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~1982 redesign of UCR

~reports from law enforcement agencies on 46 specific offenses and 11 lesser offenses (includes 8 index crimes)

~35% law enforcement agencies participate in NIBRS; UCR most widely used

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NCVS

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~done by Bureau of Justice Statistics, not FBI

~began in 1973

~measures crime incidents, victims, offenders, and trends

~includes info about vic's experiences with the criminal justice system

~nationally representative sample of households (of those 12+ years)

~households in sample for 3 years, interviewed every 6 months

~about 87% response rate for individuals and households

~can estimate total crime rates, not just those reported to law enforcement

~susceptible to under and over reporting

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Moral Panics

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~Concept by Stan Cohen (1980)

~occurs when a group or type of activity is viewed as a threat to the stability and wellbeing of society

~most are based on entirely inaccurate info

~media provides (usually inaccurate) info; law enforcement, politicians, etc. comment; experts offer solutions and explanations to panic

~false beliefs about crime play a large role in the formation of government and law enforcement policies

ex. 80-90s crack pandemic

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Biological Theories

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~deterministic

~inherited traits that make criminals

~criminals can be changed through medical, chemical, or surgical procedures to modify their brains/biochemical functions; OR they must be controlled through long term isolation/incarceration/incapacitation

*charles goring (1913 book);

~criminals are born with criminal traits

~defective physique and intelligence - short, thin, and less intelligent

*E.A. Hooton (1939 book)

~criminals can be identified through inherited traits; criminals are inferior; tautological reasoning; recommends selective breeding

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Biosocial Theories

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~no traits directly cause crime

~not deterministic, but traits influence probability

~focus on the social environment as a trigger for some predispositions to commit crime

*Herrnstein and Murray

~1994: low IQ = cognitive disadvantage leads to crime antisocial behavior

~Cullen et al. and McGloin et al debunked this; IQ is mutable through socialization and education, does not predict adult offending at early age

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Psychological Theories

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~attempts to look at the individual for the cause of the crime

~mental illness, psychotic disturbances, emotional disorders, etc.

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Psychoanalytical Theories

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~focus on the subconscious, to find cause of crime

~ not empirically tested

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Classical School of Criminology

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~deterrence, rational choice

~humans are hedonistic and capable of reasoning

~utilitarianism

~focus on the criminal event, not the criminal

~deterrence theory, routine activities theory

*Cesare Beccaria (1765 book)

~no punishment without a crime

~ punishment must be proportionate to the crime

~punishment must be prompt, certain, and severe

~trial by jury of peers and public proceedings

~presumed innocent until proven guilty

~end self incrimination and capital punishment (in exchange for life in prison)

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Positivistic School of Criminology

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~biological/biosocial/psychological theories

~focus on the individual, some trait causing behavior

~value neutrality

~find cause of crime

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Lombroso's Biological Theory of Crime

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~positivistic approach

~overly deterministic theory

~criminals are fundamentally different from non criminals; they're ancestral

~can be identified by having 5+ stigmata

~Typologies of criminals:

1. born criminals: 5+ stigmata/traits

2. Insane: mental deficit/subintelligence

3. criminaloids: largest group; provoked by their environment

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Behavioral Genetics

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~includes any family design

~seeks to disentangle the effects of genes and environment

~shared vs. non-shared environment

~twin studies

~exposure to trauma while in the womb can have negative behavioral effects

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Evolutionary Genetics

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~Ellis and Walsh (1997)

~crime is genetically inherited

~crime clusters in families

~Tautological Theory

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Media: Biased views on crime rates

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~inaccurate and exaggerated image of crime

~selective reporting, often ignoring common crime

~seek to max out views with sex, violence, light entertainment

~preoccupation for violent crime; bias towards sexual crimes, murder, gangs, and drug violence

~bias towards crimes against children and wealthy white women

~crimes against morals

~crimes by strangers

~exacerbated racial tensions - blacks and hispanics portrayed as more involved in street and violent crime than whites

~allows for persistence of crime as major national issue

~ strong positive relationship between news media exposure and fear of crime, but not causal

~fails to cover domestic violence

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Crime rate basics

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~over 90% of general population has no direct experience with crime

~crime rates have been steadily decreasing since 1991

~Property crime more common than violent crime

~less than 1/2 violent crime and 1/3 property crime is reported in the US

~homicide rate drastically increased between late 70s and early 90s - increased in 18-24 year olds, decreased in 30+

~about 2/3 all murders and 40% robberies involve firearms

~higher crime rates in neighborhoods experiencing income inequality

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Criminology

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the body of knowledge that includes making laws, breaking laws, and the reaction to breaking laws

~focus on etiology of antisocial behavior

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Social Construction

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a shared assumption or belief about the social world

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Lundman (2003) 3 ways media distorts race of victims

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1. more coverage of stories with white victims

2. stories with white victims are longer and more detailed

~more coverage of interracial violent crime when the majority of violent crime is intraracial

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Cultivation Theory

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~George Gerbner (1994)

~AKA mean world syndrome

~heavy TV violence viewers felt they were living in a state of siege

~exhibited increased fear of victimization and higher perception that people cant be trusted

~heavy TV viewers:

~overestimate probability that they will be victims of violence

~believe their neighborhoods are unsafe

~rank fear of crime as one of their most compelling personal problems

~assume crime rates are going up

~support punitive (over restorative) anti-crime measures

~most likely to buy guns and anti-crime devices

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Index Crimes

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1. crime homicide (manslaughter by negligence; murder and non-negligent manslaughter)

2. rape

3. robbery

4. aggravated assault

5. burglary/B&E

6. Larceny/theft

7. motor vehicle theft

8. arson

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Crime Clearance

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Cleared by:

~perp is arrested and charged and taken to court for prosecution

~by exception, meaning something beyond control of the police prevents arrest

50% of violent crime and 20% property crime is cleared

~media focuses on violent crime

~likelihood that vic knows perp

~often physical evidence

~vic and perp interract

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Instrumental vs. Expressive Crimes

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Instrumental:

~offenses designed to improve the financial or social position of the criminal

Expressive:

~have no purpose but to express frustration, anger, etc.

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Deterministic Approach

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~criminal behavior is determined by factors external to the individual

~biological/neurological disposition, family, etc.

~values neutrality

~suggests individualized treatment/punishment

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Tautology

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~statement or hypothesis that is true by definition

~involves circular reasoning

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Personality Theories

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~abnormal, inadequate, or specifically criminal personalities/personality traits

~weak support for correlation between personality and criminal offending; mostly tautological

~psychopaths responsible for 50% all serious crimes committed

20% all prison inmates are psychopaths

~capable of being charming, but manipulate others for own purposes; social predators