Crime In America Exam 2

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Jeremy Bentham and 4 main objectives of punishment

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Utilitarian calculus.
Prevent all criminal offenses
If prevention is not possible, convince the offender to commit a less serious crime
Ensure that a criminal uses no more force than is necessary
To prevent crime as cheaply as possible

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Cesare Beccaria

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on crimes and punishment
choice
proportionality
marginal deterrence

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Classical Criminology (Development of Rational Choice) Basic elements

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free will
criminal solutions can be very attractive
the principle of deterrence
punishment must be severe, certain, and swift

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Contemporary choice theory emerges

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thinkin about crime
the seductions of crime
impact on crime control

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Why do people commit crime?

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adolescents (risk taking and partying)
control
increased self-esteem
positive feelings
crime is a more attractive alternative than law-abiding behav-
ior. It brings rewards, excitement, prestige, or other desirable outcomes without
lengthy work or great effort

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reasoning criminals evaluate

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risk of apprehension
seriousness of expected punishment
potential value of the criminal enterprise
immediate need for criminal gain

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potential criminals

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Concludes that they stand a good chance of caught and punished
Fear the consequences of punishment
Risk losing the respect of their peers, damaging their reputations, and experiencing feelings of guilt or shame
The risk of apprehension outweighs the profit and/or pleasure of crime

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offense specific (rational choice)

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offenders react selectively to the characteristics of an individual criminal act
i.e. availability of a getaway car. ease of selling stolen merchandise

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offender-specific (rational choice)

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criminals are not simply robots who
engage in unthinking and unplanned acts of antisocial behavior. Before deciding to
commit crime, individuals must decide whether they have the personal needs, skills,
and prerequisites to commit a successful criminal act.

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Structuring Crime

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choosing the type of crime (market conditions, situational factors)
choosing the time and place of the crime
selecting the target of crime (nosy neighbors, police, messages)

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situational crime prevention

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criminal acts will be avoided if:
potential targets are guarded securely
the means to commit crime are controlled
potential offenders are carefully monitored

defensible space

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costs and benefits of situational crime prevention

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1.diffusion
2.discouragement
3.displacement- crime control efforts redirect offenders to less heavily guarded alternative targets
4.extinction- occurs when crime reduction programs produce a short-term positive effect, but benefits dissipate as criminals adjust to new conditions
5.encouragement

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general deterrence

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convincing the potential law violator that the pains associated with crime outweigh its benefits.
1.perception and deterrence- punishment will be forthcoming
2.certainty of punishment and deterrence (the tipping point)
3.severity of punishment and deterrence (shame and humiliation. informal sanctions)
4.speed of punishment (restrictive/ partial deterrence)

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analyzing general deterrence

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rationality
compulsion
need
greed
some people are more deterrable than others

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Specific Deterrence

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After experiencing criminal sanctions that are swift, sure, and powerful, known criminals will never dare repeat their criminal acts
Rather than reducing reoffending, severe punishments may sometimes increase reoffending
The domestic violence study

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does incapacitation control crime?

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Little evidence to support deterrent effect
Exposure of young offenders to older inmates
There will always be someone to take the place of the incarcerated offender
Most criminal offenses are committed by young people Expensive
Reentry contributes to community disorganization
three strikes laws

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Positivism (foundation of trait theory)

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all true knowledge is acquired through direct observation
the scientific method must be used if research findings are to be considered valid

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biological positivism (foundation of trait theory)

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physiognomists
phrenologists
psychopathic personality

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Cesare Lombroso: father of criminology

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Atavistic anomalies (indirect and direct heredity)
Lombroso's contemporaries
Somatotype- Ectomorphs, mesomorphs, endomorph

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The legacy of biological criminology

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historical curiosity
methodologically flawed
biosocial theory

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Biochemical Conditions and Crime

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smoking and drinking
exposure to chemicals and minerals
diet and crime
sugar intake
glucose metabolism/hypoglycemia
hormonal influences
how hormones influence behavior
pms
allergies(cerebral allergies, neuroallergies)
environmental contaminants
lead ingestion

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neurophysiological conditions and crime

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minimal brain dysfunction
learning disabilities
adhd
tumors, lesions, injury an disease
brain chemistry

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economic structure and crime

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the underclass
child poverty (more severe impact on behavior than adolescent or adult poverty)
minority group poverty (race, income, crime)

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social disorganization theory focuses on conditions in the environment

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deteriorated neighborhoods
inadequate social control
law-violating gangs and groups
conflicting social values

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strain theory focuses on conflict between goals and means

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unequal distribution of wealth and power
frustration
alternative methods of achievement

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cultural deviance theory combines the other two

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development of subcultures as a result of disorganization and stress
subcultural values in opposition to conventional values

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social disorganization theory

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crime rates linked to neighborhood ecological characteristics (education, health care, housing)
destabilization
lack of social control
gang formation
transitional neighborhoods
concentric zones
legacy of shaw and mckay

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social ecology school

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community deterioration
poverty concentration
chronic unemployment
community fear (race and fear, gangs and fear, mistrust and fear)
community change
cycles of community change

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Chicago Area Project

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founded in the 1930's by Clifford Shaw
"every neighborhood could reduce juvenile deliquency by improving community life"
three pronged approach (community organizing, direct services and advocacy)

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Strain Theories

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The American Dream, The Concept of Anomie,

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The American Dream

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relative deprivation v. objective deprivation
envy and mistrust-aggression and violence
economic and social power (sense of injustice)
Structural strain (economic and social)
Individual strain (life experiences)

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The concept of anomie

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People who adopt the goals of society but lack the means to attain them seek alternatives, such as crime.

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merton's theory of anomie

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many people who desire material goods and other forms of economic success lack the means to achieve their goals. Some may turn to crime.
from a city slum to crime not neighborhood disorganization but the American Dream

social adaptations

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Individual modes of adaptation

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conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion

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conformity

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When individuals embrace conventional social goals and also have the means to attain them, they can choose to conform. They remain law-abiding.

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innovation

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When individuals accept the goals of society but are unable or unwilling to attain them through legitimate means, the resulting conflict forces them to adopt innovative solutions to their dilemma: They steal, sell drugs, or extort money. Of the five adaptations, innovation is most closely associated with criminal behavior

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ritualism

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Ritualists gain pleasure from practicing traditional ceremonies, regardless of whether they have a real purpose or goal. The strict customs in religious
orders, feudal societies, clubs, and college fraternities encourage and appeal to ritualists.

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retreatism

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Retreatists reject both the goals and the means of society. They attempt to escape their lack of success by withdrawing, either mentally or physically, through taking drugs or becoming drifters.

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evaluating anomie theory

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one of the most enduring and influential but had unanswered questions
why certain types of crime
assumption of shared goals and values
led to marco vs. micro level anomie theories
institutional anomie
general strain theory

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Macro level theory: Institutional Anomie Theory

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Messner and Rosenfeld
material goods pervade all aspects of american life
The american dream: a goal and a process
Success goal is pervasive
institutional balance of power is tilted toward the economy
pursuit of money through any means necessary

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impact of anomie

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1.non-economic functions and roles are devalued (school)
2.When conflicts emerge, noneconomic roles become subordinate to and must accommodate economic roles. The schedules, routines, and demands of the work place take priority over those of the home, the school, the community, and other aspects of social life.
3.Economic language, standards, and norms penetrate noneconomic realms. Economic terms become part of the common vernacular: People want to get to the
“bottom line.” Spouses view themselves as “partners” who “manage” the household

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institutional effects

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weakens the informal social control exerted by family, church, and school. These institutions have lost their ability to regulate behavior and have instead become a conduit for promoting material success.

family, church, school

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micro-level theory: general strain theory

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Robert Agnew- individuals who feel stress and strain are more likely to commit crime
failure to achieve positively valued goals
removal of positively valued stimuli
presentation of negative stimuli

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general strain theory

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Strain is seen as unjust
Strain is high in magnitude
Strain caused by or associated with low social control
Strain creates some pressure or incentive to engage in criminal coping

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peer relations

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have a powerful effect
on human conduct and can dramatically
influence decision making and behavior
choices. The fear of punishment is diminished among kids who hang
with delinquent friends, and loyalty to delinquent peers may outweigh the fear of
punishment.

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religion and belief

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people who hold high moral values and beliefs, who have
learned to d istinguish right from wrong, and who regularly attend religious ser-
vices should also eschew crime and other antisocial behaviors.

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differential association theory (sutherland)

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criminal behavior is learned
learning is a by-product of interaction
learning occurs within intimate groups
criminal techniques are learned
perceptions of legal code influence motives and drives
criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values but it is not excused by those general needs and values because noncriminal behavior is also an expression of those same needs and values.

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differential associations may vary in

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frequency, duration, priority and intensity

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differential association theory. the process of learning criminal behavior

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by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms involved in any other learning process

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testing differential association theory

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correlation between having deviant friends, holding deviant attitudes and committing deviant acts

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analysis of differential association theory

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provides a consistent explanation of all types of delinquent and criminal behavior

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Neutralization Theory (MATZA and SYKES)

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Youths learn ways of neutralizing moral restraints
and periodically drift in and out of criminal behavior
patterns. explains why many delinquents dont become adult criminals

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techniques of neutralization are a set of justifications violating behavior

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Deny responsibility
Deny injury
Deny the victim
Condemn condemners
Appeal to higher loyalties

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testing neutralization theory

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Recent evidence shows that people do drift in and out of antisocial behavior
Is a major contribution to the literature of crime and delinquency because it explains aging-out and non-chronic delinquency

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social control theory

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Maintains that all people have the potential to violate the law and that modern society presents many opportunities for illegal activity
People obey the law because behavior and passions are being controlled by internal and external forces

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social control theory - self concept and crime

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delinquents as having weak egos and lacking the self-control to produce conforming behavior. rendering kids at risk to crime

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social control theory- (reckless) containment theory

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A strong self-image insulates a youth from the pressures and pulls of criminogenic influences in the environment
inner containment- what you believed
outer containment- ur peers

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Social control theory- Hirschi's Social Bond Theory

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Links the onset of criminality to the weakening of the ties that bind people to society
Attachment
Commitment
involvement
Belief

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social reaction theory- Labeling theory

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Explains how criminal careers form based on destructive social interactions and encounters

focuses on the reaction of the community to where you come from. They label you differently depending on how you are

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symbolic interaction theory

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People communicate via symbols (gestures, signs, words, or images that represent something else)

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social reaction theory- interpreting crime

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Crime and deviance are defined by the social audience’s reaction to people and their behavior and the subsequent effects of that reaction; they are not defined by the moral content of the illegal act itself

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social reaction theory- differential enforcement

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The law is differentially applied, benefiting those who hold economic and social power and penalizing the powerless
 Police more likely to arrest lower-class, minority males
 Minorities and the poor are more likely to be prosecuted and to receive harsher sentences

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primary deviance (Lemert)

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initial criminal act: you do it, dont get caught and never think about it again

Involves norm violations or crimes that have very little influence on the actor and can be quickly forgotten

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secondary deviance (Lemert)

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you do the crime, get caught & become labeled as a criminal. serious effects on the person because they have less opportunities to find jobs and get help from the government

Occurs when a deviant event comes to the attention of significant others or social control agents who apply a negative label

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reflective reading (evaluating social process theories)

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put a label on someone after the fact. A person goes back and interprets a situation labeling the person

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attachment (element of social bond)

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people you are attached to such as community

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commitment (element of social bond)

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setting goals for the future

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involvement (element of social bond)

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how you spend your time on a day to day basis. prosocial things or criminal

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belief (element of social bond)

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religious, traditional values