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71 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Smart (1976) (Fem) |
Women offenders are often seen as 'doubly deviant' because they break the law and they breach traditional gender roles - their offences are more highly stigmatised than males even if they are less serious. |
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Becker (Interactionist) |
An act only becomes deviant when others perceive and define it as such, and whether or not the deviant label is applied will depend on societal reaction.
Police operate with pre-existing conceptions and stereotypes. The action that is taken will depend not so much on actual offences or behaviour - but on the stereotypes of groups and offences they hold. |
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Cicourel (1976) (Phenomenologist) |
Police viewed behaviour of m/c and w/c juveniles differently even when engaged in the same actions - more formal police action against w/c.
Suggests we need to look at choices made by police over where they patrol, who they regard with suspicion and who they choose to stop and search, arrest and charge. |
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Newburn (2007)
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Crime is basically a label attached to certain forms of behaviour which are prohibited by the state and have some legal penalty against them. Even if crime is defined by the criminal law the fact that the criminal law varies from country to country and changes over time, reinforces the idea that there is nothing that is in itself criminal. |
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Plummer (1979)
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Societal Deviance - refers to acts that are seen by most members of a society as deviant. Situational Deviance - refers to acts that are only defined as deviant in particular contexts. |
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Reiner (2007)
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Media coverage of crime and deviance is filtered through journalists' sense of what makes an event 'newsworthy' - driven by news values.
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Jewkes (2004)
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News values Threshold Proximity Predictability Individualism Simplification Risk Spectacle and graphic images Celebrity or high status Children Sex Violence Conservatism |
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Greer (2005)
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All media tend to exaggerate the extent of violent and celebrity crime and the news values help to explain this. News reporting tended to exaggerate the risk of people becoming victims of crime, particularly among adults who were of higher social class, female and white. |
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Cohen (2002 [1972])
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Folk Devils and Moral Panics - Mods and Rockers
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McRobbie and Thornton (1995)
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The concept of 'moral panics' is now outdated and is no longer useful due to new media technology, the growing sophistication of a media-saturated society and competition between different types of media and media companies who have changed the reporting and reaction of events that may once have caused a moral panic. (24/7 reporting, constant broadcasting)
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Lombroso (1800s)
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Criminals had abnormal physical features that distinguished them from the rest of the population, such as large jaws and cheekbones.
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Durkheim (1982) (Func) |
Crime is inevitable because of different socialisation so not everyone can be equally committed to the shared values and moral beliefs of society. By strengthening collective values, Enabling social change/creating employment, acting as a safety valve (Cohen), acting as a warning device (Clinard) |
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Merton (1968 [1975])
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Strain Theory and Anomie - in an unequal society, he argues that not all individuals have the same opportunity of realising these goals by approved means.
Conformity - accepts Innovation - not means, accepts goals. Ritualism - accepts means not goals. Retreatism - none Rebellion - replaces both |
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Cohen (1971) |
Status frustration leads to delinquent subculture.
Stealing replaces hard work Threats replace respect for others.
Gives lower-working-class youth an opportunity to achieve status in peer group which carries with it the risk of delinquency. Non-financial crimes motivated by revenge against society that has denied them status.
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Cloward and Ohlin (1960) |
Criminal subcultures - develop in more stable w/c areas where there is an established pattern of adult crime - provides a learning opportunity and career structure for aspiring criminals. Adults exercise social control over the young to stop them carrying out non-utilitarian crimes - vandalism.
Conflict subcultures - socially disorganised areas where there is high rate of population and lack of social cohesion - prevent formation of adult criminal subcultures. Approved and illegal means of achieving goals are blocked or limited and youth express their frustration through street crime and at least obtain status through success in peer group values.
Retreatist subcultures - lower class youth 'double failures' - failed to succeed in both mainstream society and in criminal/conflict subcultures so retreat into drug addiction and alcoholism paid for by shoplifting, petty theft, prostitution. |
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Miller |
Focal concerns become exaggerated in the lives of young people as the search for peer group status leads them into delinquency.
Shared by many lower-working-class males of all ages, but are likely to become exaggerated in the lives of young people as they seek to achieve status.
Toughness and masculinity Smartness Excitement and thrills Fatalism Autonomy and freedom Trouble |
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Matza (1964) |
Youth occasional acts of delinquency, in a state of drift, are accompanied by techniques of neutralisation.
Denial of responsibility Denial of injury to the victim Denial of victim Condemnation of condemners Appeal to higher loyalties |
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Hirschi (1969) (Control Theory) |
Social bonds - attachment, belief, commitment and involvement - stop people committing crime. |
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Marx |
Laws not an expression of value consensus but are a reflection of ruling-class ideology.
Criminal laws reflect capitalist system - e.g. The protection of private property.
Law, definition, agencies of social control reflect and protect r/c - used to control workforce and criminalise those who oppose.
Crime is a rational response to competitiveness and inequality of life in capitalism.
Selective Law Enforcement - m/c - 'get away with crime' - one law for rich, one for poor. Ensures that individuals, not the system of inequality are blamed for crime.
Working-class crime - form of resistance to the r/c - a challenge to its property and power. |
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Taylor, Walton & Young (Neo-Marx/New Crim) |
No one forced to commit crime, offending therefore involved a choice made by the criminal.
'A fully social theory of deviance' The wider social origins of act The immediate origins of the act The actual act and what it means to the individual The immediate origins of societal reaction Wider origins of societal reaction Outcomes of societal reaction on the individuals further action. |
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Gilroy (1982) (Neo Marx/New-Crim) (Ethnicity & Crime) |
Working-class crime - form of political action and resistance to ruling-class oppression e.g. police racism and harassment. |
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Hall |
Media exaggeration created a moral panic and growing public concern about a black crime wave - justify more repressive and aggressive policing.
E.g. The Mugging Scare |
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Becker (Interactionist/Labelling) |
Deviant label becomes master status.
Labelling process and societal reaction lead to SFP and deviant career - produce more deviance than it prevents. |
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Lemert (1972) (Interactionist/Labelling) |
Primary Deviance - not been publicly labelled e.g. breaking traffic law, pinch stationery from work - has few consequences for person if stays hidden.
Secondary Deviance - when offender is discovered and publicly exposed and the label of 'deviant' attached e.g. Stigma attached to people caught downloading child pornography. |
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Young (1971) (Interactionist/Labelling) |
Participant observation - Notting Hill Hippies - marijuana users. |
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Lea & Young (Left Realism) |
3 main causes of crime Relative Deprivation
Marginalisation - poor educational achievement, unemployment
Subcultures - w/c deviant
The square of crime CJS, Criminal offender, Victim of Crime, Informal social controls e.g. General public. |
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Wilson (Right Realism) |
Value consensus and shared morality underpin society.
People are naturally selfish.
Community control.
Rational choice and opportunity.
Crime will always exist. |
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Cornish and Clarke (Right Realism) |
Applied rational choice theory to crime suggesting that people choose to commit crime because they decide that the benefits gained are greater than the potential costs, the opportunities for crown are available and the risk is worth it. |
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Wilson & Kelling (1982) (Right Realism) |
Broken Windows Thesis - unless anti-social behaviour is kept to a minimum, there will be a gradual deterioration of neighbourhoods with growing crime rates.
Saw such growing disorder weakening the bonds of community and the police should have a zero tolerance policy - prevent a deterioration of social cohesion and keep neighbourhoods safe. |
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Heidensohn (Fem) |
Reasons for female invisibility
Researchers predominantly male. Less female crime to study - less detectable offences e.g. Prostitution, shoplifting. |
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Messerschmidt (1993) (Fem) |
Crime and violence - including domestic violence - can be a means of 'accomplishing masculinity' for men who have failed to achieve this in other areas. |
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Henry & Milovanovic (1996) (Po-mo) |
Crime should be taken beyond the narrow legal definitions to a wider conception of social harm, embracing all threats and risks to people pursuing increasingly diverse lifestyles and identities. |
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Henry & Milovanovic (Po-mo) |
Crime is people using power to show disrespect for others by causing them some sort of harm.
Harms of reduction - power is used to cause a victim to experience some immediate loss of injury.
Harms of repression - power is used to restrict future human development - hate crimes, racist abuse, sexual harassment. |
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Katz (1988) |
Examines the pleasures and seductions of crime for individuals e.g. shoplifting or murder 'righteous slaughter' = sneaky thrills. |
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Lyng (1990) |
Crime is 'edgework' committed for the risk-taking, excitement and thrills those involved get from 'living on the edge'.
Peer-group status can be achieved through risky activities which take on a symbolic value as a trophy of the risk-taking game. |
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Foucault (1991) |
Surveillance is penetrating more into private aspects of our lives, aided by new surveillance technology e.g. CCTV which monitors movements of people.
Consumer tracking - e.g. Tesco Clubcard - collects information about all products. |
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Roe & Ashe (2008) (Age & Crime) |
Offending, Crime and Justice self report-survey - 22% of 10-25 year olds admitted to having committed at least one out of 20 core offences in the previous year - assault and theft being the main ones. |
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Carlen (1988) and Heidensohn (1996) (Females appear to commit less) Control theory and rational choice. |
Heidensohn - differences between genders arise from different social circumstances, opportunity, the socialisation process and the different impacts of informal and formal social control.
Carlen - women are encouraged to conform by: 'The class deal' - material rewards that arise from working in paid employment, enabling women to purchase things like consumer goods and enjoy a respectable home life. 'The gender deal' - rewards that arise from fulfilling their roles in the family and home, with material and emotional support from a male breadwinner.
Some of these rewards are not available to some women due to poverty, unemployment - they make a rational decision to commit crime which offers benefits of financial gain, food e.g. shoplifting or fraud. |
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Carlen (1988) and Heidensohn (1996) (Females appear to commit less) The constraints of socialisation. |
Heidensohn - women have more to lose than men if they get involved in crime because they face a greater risk of stigma or shame.
Carlen - women are socialised into performing a central role as 'guardians of domestic morality' and they risk social disapproval when they fail to do so - labelled 'doubly deviant'. |
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Carlen (1988) and Heidensohn (1996) (Females appear to commit less) Social Control |
Heidensohn - an ideology of different spheres, with men dominating public spheres - work, pubs & clubs and the streets at night in which most crime is committed, and women the private sphere of the home.
1. Private domestic sphere - responsibilities for childcare provide less time and opportunity for crime, and women face more serious consequences if they do become involved. Teenage girls - likely to be more closely supervised by parents - reducing their chances of trouble.
2. Public sphere - women faced with controls arising from fear of physical or sexual violence if they go out at night alone. At work often subject to sexual harassment and supervision by male bosses which restricts their opportunities to deviate.
3. Women face the threat of losing their reputation of being 'respectable' if they engage in crime - e.g. gossip, labels (slag/slapper) by men - which comes from being caught as men will condemn them for a lack of femininity. |
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For - The Chivalry Thesis (Gender and Crime) (Females appear to commit less) |
1. Home office - women treated more leniently by the law, with first offenders about half as likely to be given a sentence of immediate imprisonment as males.
2. Female offenders generally regarded by the police as less serious threat so more likely to benefit from more informal approaches to their minor offences - cautions or warnings rather than being charged. Women receive more cautions than men - partly because commit relatively minor offences - shoplifting - more likely to admit than males - necessary before the police can issue caution.
Police stereotyping means women who commit crimes may benefit from the police view that they are less likely to be criminals and so are less likely to have their behaviour watched and get caught. |
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Against - The Chivalry Thesis (Gender and Crime) (Females appear to commit less) |
1. Women less likely to commit serious offences those who do likely to face more severe punishment than men, particularly for violent crime, as it violates socially acceptable patterns of feminine behaviour. Carlen - sentences handed out to women by CJS partly influenced by courts assessment of their characters and traditional roles rather than simply by the severity of the offence. Women seen as 'really bad' because they violate traditional feminine behaviour. Men are more violent but are given lighter sentences for similar offences because they expected to be violent.
2. Women offenders more likely to be put in prison while awaiting trial for serious offences, but in three-quarters of cases, women do not actually receive a prison sentence when they come to trial.
3. Women are about twice as likely as men to be denied bail when charged with drug offences and three times as likely for serious offences involving dishonesty.
4. Women in prison appear to have been sentenced more severely than men in similar circumstances e.g. they have been imprisoned rather than given community punishment.
Women might commit less crime, and less serious offences but they appear to suffer more severe consequences when they do commit serious offences - women are expected to be 'good' and are punished when they're not - men expected to be tough and aggressive and periodically go off the rails and so are punished less severely when they do. |
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Adler (1975) (Gender & Crime) (Growing female criminality) |
Growing female crime may be due to changing gender roles. Women have more independence and are becoming more successful than males in education and the labour market. Among younger women traditional forms of female control are weakening. |
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Denscombe (2001) (Gender & Crime) (Growing female criminality) |
More of a masculinised 'laddette' culture, where young women are adopting behaviour traditionally associated with young males - binge drinking, gang culture, violence. Police are now reacting in a more serious way, taking more action and prosecuting girls involved in such behaviour rather than dealing with it informally which increases the stats for these offences. |
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Connell (1987,1995) (Gender & Crime) (The assertion of masculinity) |
Hegemonic masculinity - a male gender identity that defines what it means to bra 'real man'. Men who don't want to be regarded as 'wimps', 'abnormal' or odd are meant to accomplish this masculinity. |
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Messerschmidt (1993) (Gender & Crime) (The assertion of masculinity) |
Men sometimes turn to crime and violence as a means of asserting their masculinity when legitimate means of demonstrating masculinity are blocked - men seek out alternative, masculine-validating resources - threatened or actual violence - through fights and self-defence, violence against women as an assertion of power, and crime. Those lacking legitimate masculine-validating resources are most likely to be those from more deprived backgrounds (the most common criminals.) |
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Sutherland (1949) (White-collar or occupational crime) |
First sought to show that crime was not simply a w/c phenomenon but was widespread throughout all sections of society.
Introduced the idea of white collar crime. |
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Timner & Eitzen (1989) (White-collar or occupational crime) |
Sociology focuses on the crimes of the streets rather than the crimes of the suites. |
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Croall (2001) (White-collar or occupational crime) |
Cites examples of crimes against the NHS by doctors, pharmacists and dentists who falsify prescriptions and patient records to claim more from the NHS.
White collar offences are relatively invisible as they are difficult to detect. |
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Gilroy (1982) (Neo-Marx) (Ethnicity & Crime) |
Crime by blacks (1970s) was a form of political action, representing a culture of resistance to oppressors in the form of police racism and harassment. Denies there was a greater criminality among black people than whites, suggesting this was a myth created by negative stereotyping by the police, who saw ethnic minority groups as untrustworthy, with African Caribbean youth labelled as potential 'muggers' and Asians as potential illegal immigrants, and this helped to generate official stats as these groups were treated unfairly by the police. |
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Lea & Young (1984) (Ethnicity & Crime) |
Most crimes are reported by the public, not uncovered by the police, so it is hard to explain black crime in terms of police racism. |
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Hall (1978) (Ethnicity & Crime) (Neo-Marx) |
1978 Britain was facing unemployment, war in Ireland, high numbers of strikes - led to crisis of hegemony. Media picked up on growing conflict between police and African Caribbean's and promoted the idea that black people were more prone to criminality than whites, and the media image of the 'black mugger' was born. Moral panic developed with growing demands by the public that something should be done about the problem. 'Black mugger' - folk devil symbol for all society's problems and helped to justify more repressive and aggressive policing in some inner-city areas. Exaggerated extent of black crime therefore became a way of reasserting the dominance of ruling class ideas as the public shared their concerns over black criminality. |
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Bowling and Phillips (2002) (Ethnicity & Crime) |
Higher levels of robbery by black people could be linked to poverty and social exclusion which black communities are more likely to suffer from. These factors affect Asians too however their lower crime rate may be because Asian cultures offer a more clear identity, and there are generally stronger controls with Asian families and communities, limiting the opportunities and perhaps the desire to commit crime. |
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Reiner (2000) (Ethnicity & Crime) |
Racist 'canteen culture' among the police includes suspicion, macho values and racism which encourages racist stereotypes and a mistrust of those from non-White backgrounds. |
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Bowling & Phillips (2002) (Ethnicity & Crime) |
Higher levels of robbery among blacks could be a product of labelling that arises from the use of regular stop and search procedures by the police which leads to SFP. Black & Asian more likely to get caught, arrested and charged, and the original police stereotype is confirmed by the activities of the police themselves. |
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Sharp and Budd (2005) (Ethnicity & Crime) Discrimination in the CJS |
Of all ethnic groups, black offenders were most likely to have contact with the CJS in their lifetime and significantly more likely to have been arrested, been to court and convicted. |
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Marshall and Johnson (2005) (Locality and Crime) |
Cite evidence showing that anxiety and worry about all crime types is less in rural areas compared to urban and inner-city areas and that rural residents see themselves as less likely to become a victim of crime. Rural areas have a higher risk of burglaries among high-income households than lower-income. In urban areas low-income household more at risk of burglaries. Urban areas - poor rob poor, Rural areas - poor rob rich. |
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Shaw and McKay (1931,1942) (Locality & Crime) |
Zone of Transition (2) - highest levels of crime. 'Zonal Hypothesis' 1. Social disorganisation - high rates of population turnover prevented stable communities, weakened hold of values and informal social controls which would discourage crime & deviance. 2. Cultural transmission - different delinquent values develop to which children living in such communities are exposed and which young boys learn from older of the criminal traditions that are established and accepted in the area. This subcultural culture is transmitted from one generation to another. 3. Differential association - developed by Sutherland (1948) suggests that people's behaviour is conditioned by reference to the behaviour of others around them. If people are associated with criminals they are more likely to commit crime themselves. |
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Felson & Clarke (1998) (Locality & Crime) |
No crime can occur without the physical opportunities to carry it out and therefore opportunity should be considered as a 'root cause'. Routine activity theory - suggests a crime occurs as part of everyday routines, when there are three conditions present: Suitable target for the potential offender. No 'capable guardian' to protect the target. Potential offender present who chooses whether or not to commit the crime.
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Brantingham & Brantingham (1995) (Locality & Crime) |
Urban areas have more crime generating and crime attracting areas than rural areas, such as shopping precincts, leisure facilities and areas like red-light districts that offer more opportunities for crime, and attract offenders who go there in search of crime. |
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Mcguire (2002) (Limitations of Official Statistics) |
Estimates that only about 3% of all crime in England & Wales ends with a conviction. Means we don't really have very reliable evidence about who is committing the majority of offences, leaving open the possibility that much crime may be committed by very different criminal types from those who come before the courts. Growing privatisation and the break-up of close-knit community life means that people may now be reporting to the police incidents that they would once have dealt with by taking action themselves. |
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Slapper and Tombs (1999) (Corporate Crime) |
Diverse range of widespread corporate crime. Identify six types of corporate offence.
1. Paperwork and non-compliance - Herald of Free Entreprise in 1989. 2. Environmental/green crimes - illegal dumping, Union Carbide - India. 3. Manufacturing offences - Ford Pinto in 1970s. 4. Labour law violations - Health and Safety Violations. 5. Unfair trade practices - Price fixing in 2007 of dairy products. 6. Financial offences - Tax evasion and concealment of losses - Enron in USA in 2001. |
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Box (1983) (Corporate Crime) (Marx) |
The push to corporate crime is driven by the need to maintain profits in an increasingly global market which leads to: Concealment of profits to avoid taxation. Lying about losses to avoid upsetting investors. Illegal dumping to avoid costs, or shipping it to other countries where disposal costs and safety regulations are lower, especially toxic waste. Concealment of dangerous or unsafe products to avoid legal action, or continuing to sell products in other countries that fail safety tests in their own - happens with many drug companies. |
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Karofi and Mwanza (2006) (Globalisation & Crime) |
Global crimes include, among others, the international trade in illegal drugs, weapons and human beings, money laundering, terrorism and cybercrime. |
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Walklate (2004) (Gender & Victimisation) |
Police are now beginning to treat DV more seriously with domestic violence units and rape suites in many police stations. |
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Hester and Westmarland (2006) |
Only around 5% of incidents that are reported result in a conviction. |
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Wilson (2006) (Age & Victimisation) |
Young people are most likely to be victims of crime, with 27% of 10-25 yr olds reporting being victims of personal crimes like assault without injury and theft. |
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Tierney (1996) (Positivist Victimology) |
Positivist approach to victimology involves identifying something in the characteristics or circumstances of victims which makes them different from non-victims. |
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Left Realism (Social Crime Prevention) |
Being tough on the causes of crime - so need to tackle the material and cultural deprivation - poor housing, unemployment, poverty - risk factors for crime, particularly among young people.
Policies Building strong communities and cohesion. Multi-agency working. Creation of PACT. Community control of policing to encourage reporting. More time spent in investigating. Tackling social deprivation by improving community facilities to divert potential offenders - youth leisure activities, improving housing. Parenting support, early intervention - Surestart to help children in poor communities get a better start to life. |
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Right Realism (Situational Crime Prevention) |
Being tough on the criminals - focus on individuals rather than on the wider social issues. Individual choose crime and must be dissuaded from doing so and if they can't, must be punished for it - SCP & Increased social control.
SCP aims to make potential targets of crime more difficult and risky with 'target-hardening measures'. Concerned with preventing crime in particular locations rather than with catching offenders.
Increased social control - links to Hirschi control theory, suggests that strong social bonds integrating people into communities encourage individuals to choose conformity over C&D - focus on tighter control and socialisation by strengthening traditional social institutions
Policies Parenting orders Neighbourhood Watch - building community. Cracking down on anti social behaviour (ASBOs). Supervision of offenders. Zero tolerance policing. More policing, more arrests. Fast-track punishment and harsher sentences. |
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Felson & Clarke (Displacement Theory) |
SCP does not prevent crime but merely shifts it around - displaces it.
SCP may divert potential offenders to committing crime somewhere else, at some other point in time or to other more vulnerable targets where the risk of being caught are lower.
However SCP can still have positive effects in preventing crime - potential offenders may believe that target hardening measures and therefore SCP measures may have an impact beyond the immediate location. SCP may result in less serious crimes being committed - move from crimes harmful to individuals - burglary to impersonal and less harmful crimes - shoplifting. Even if some displacement occurs consequences of crime may be less serious for both individuals and the wider community than if no SCP measures were taken. |
