• Shuffle
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Alphabetize
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Front First
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Both Sides
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Read
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
Reading...
Front

Card Range To Study

through

image

Play button

image

Play button

image

Progress

1/123

Click to flip

Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;

Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;

H to show hint;

A reads text to speech;

123 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
In the Lab Tab measurement instrument of emotional differences in 6-month-olds, what emotions did we observe?
Anxious, excited, confusion, frightened, unaware, bored, agitated, sadness, unhappy, joy, startled
What type of information can we use to form judgement of what emotions infants express?
Context, body language, facial expression
What is emotion?
-Affect or Feelings, but also
physiological responses: changes in heart rate, breathing, etc.
tied to facial expressions: smiling, frowning, etc
cognitive aspect: depend on our understanding of what's happening
social aspect: used to communicate and regulate interaction with others
According to caregivers, do infants display emotions?
YES!
-Within the first month, caregivers observe joy, sadness, anger, curiosity
According to research, do infants display emotions?
Emotions emerge from 2 global states:
1. Contentment--> Happiness, interest
2. Distress--> anger, fear, sadness
Evidence for infant emotions..most evidence is?
Indirect-inferred from facial expressions
Adult raters correctly identify infants' emotional expressions
Cross-cultural studies of emotion
-Facial expressions are judged similarly all over the world
Problems with using facial expressions to judge emotions?
-May not be valid across contexts and ages
-Good to include physiological indicators (Ex: heart rate, galvanic skin response--fright)
Temperament
*Behavioral consistencies that appear early in life, that are frequently emotional in nature

-in part, genetically based
-modifiable by experience
-basis for development of personality
Different views of temperament
Nature: children are BORN with certain temperaments

Nurture: children are the way they are because of the way they're RAISED
Role of genetics on temperament
Differences appear early: innate dispositions
Heritability: evidence from twin studies
Cross-cultural research: Found differences in excitability in newborn infants of Asian-American vs. Euro-American or African American descent
(Ex: when they put the cloth over infant's head and Asian Amer. babies didn't agitate)
Role of environment in Nurture
Temperament changes somewhat over time
-Only modest stability over time
-Only about 20% of extremely inhibited/uninhibited children maintain extreme profile over time
How has temperament been studied according to The New York Longitudinal Study?
-Initiated in 1956 by 2 physicians who noticed early differences in infants
-Followed 141 children from infancy into adulthood
-Asked mothers about children's characteristics
Dimensions of Temperament
1. Quality of Mood- range from Positive to Negative
2. Approach/Withdrawal
3. Adaptability
4. Intensity of Reaction
5. Rhythmicity- Biological Rhythms
6. Attention Span and Persistance- signals or messages the infants send out
7. Threshold of Responsiveness- sensitivity (Ex: to touch when wiping nose)
8. Activity Level
9. Distractibility
Temperament Types
Easy or Flexible about 40%
-positive mood, fast adaptation, low-moderate activity, low intensity of reactions

Difficult or Spirited about 10%
-negative mood, slow adaptation, high activity, highly intense reactions, low threshold

Slow-to-warm-up or Shy about 15%
-withdrawal, slow adaptation, low-moderate activity, mild intensity of reactions
Implications of NYLS: Predicting later behavior problems from early temperament
-70% children "difficult" developed behavior problems by school age.
-only 18% of "easy" children did
Implications of NYLS: "Goodness-Of-Fit" Model
-Fit between temperament and care giving predicts developmental outcomes.
Implications of NYLS: *A Caution
-"Difficult" label can become self-fulfilling prophecy
In Summary of Infant social development I
-Infants are social beings from the start, able to express basic emotions early on.
-Temperament can be measured via observed difference among 9 distinct dimensions.
-Temperament is biologically based, but there is only modest stability over time.
Define attachment
-Enduring emotional tie between caregiver and child "relationships". (child to caregiver to sibling or other family member)
Describe the signs of attachment in infants.
-Separation Anxiety: cries when caregiver leaves
-Square base behavior: feeling safe to explore environment in presence of caregiver. (check to see if caregiver is still there)
-Preference for primary caregiver: greetings
-Stranger Anxiety: presence of stranger may frighten child
At what age do signs of attachment usually emerge?
-All signs of attachment emerge around 6-12 months of age and are considered to be UNIVERSAL
Assessing Attachment
ALL infants are attached to caregiver, but Quality of attachment varies...*Even if caregiver is abusive, children still develop attachment
Describe the "strange situation" used to assess patterns of attachment.
8 episodes, each 3 minutes
Series of separations & reunions w/caregiver
Describe the 4 categories of attachment classified in Ainsworth's Strange Situation.
Attachment Categories:
Secure- uses caregiver as secure base, goes to parent upon return, not as responsive to stranger as to parent (~65%)
Insecure-...
Anxious/Avoidant (20%): unresponsive to parent, react to stranger similarly to parent, slow to greet parent
Anxious/Resistant(10%): reduced exploration, mix proximity-seeking with angry behavior (might be clingy when parents leave, but ambivalent to parents when they return)
Disorganized (5%): confused, contradictory behavior, flat affect (look at caregiver to be comforted, but walk away b/c they're scared)
What is the origin of attachment according to psychoanalytic theory and behaviorist theory? (Freud, Erikson)
Psychoanalytic Theory...
-Relationship with mother provides model for all other relationships
-Baby becomes attached to mother because: she satisfies baby's hunger drive (drive reduction)

Behaviorism...
-Feeding is primary reason babies become attached to their caregivers
-Caregivers provide: relief from discomfort (reinforcing)
Common theme found with the origins of attachment?
That feeding is basis for attachment HOWEVER this was proved to be wrong!
Feeding is NOT basis of attachment.
Describe Harlow's research on monkeys, seeking to verify whether feeding is the basis of attachment.
Baby monkeys, separated from their mothers at birth; reared in cage with 2 'surrogate mothers'
-1/2 with wired mom
-1/2 with cloth mom

Results: All spent more time with cloth mom
-when stressed, they ran to cloth mom
-Used cloth mom as secure base
-Comfort of having cloth mother= CONTACT IS IMPORTANT!
Describe Bowlby's ethological theory of attachment.
John Bowlby's ethological theory:
Attachment related to our evolutionary history
- If not for attachment, human species would not survive (long period of immaturity)

Function of attachment: is protection from danger
How can infants' wariness of unfamiliar people and objects be explained?
*We need a caregiver who can respond to our attachment needs. (feed us when we're hungry)

Infants' behaviors increase chances caregiver will respond.
What are the main influences on attachment?
Quality of care giving:
-Consistency--> with which caregiver responds
-Sensitivity
*If inconsistent, then more likely to be resistant

Mental health of care giver
-More insecure attachment among depressed mothers & their infants.

Child temperament (mixed feelings)--> may influence but not as important as caregiver

Culture differences--> cultural differences play a role in the quality of attachment. (example of Israeli kids who slept at home with parents compared to those who slept in dormatories with multiple caregivers showed higher secure attachment.)
What factors affect whether an infant remains in the same attachment classification when retested after several months or years?
Secure attachment in infancy linked to:
In preschool-- higher self-esteem, more socially competent, more cooperative & persistent, less dis-tractable, better problem-solvers!

In adolescence-- more positive peer relationships

In adulthood-- more satisfying romantic relationships, secure attachment w/own infant
Why Implications of Attachment?
Formation of "internal working models" of relationships (Bowlby)
Example: infants trust people in the world; expect people and relationships to be satisfying
In Summary to Early Social Development II: Attachment
-All infants all over the world become attached to their caregivers (provided they have a relatively stable one); attachment is vital to our survival.
-Quality of attachment is influenced by the consistency with which caregiver responds to child's needs.
What is reactive attachment disorder?
-a severe psychological disorder linked to a disruption in the development of the parent-child attachment relationship.
Distinguish between the behaviorist and the nativist theories of language development.
Behaviorist Perspective--> Language acquisition is driven by: properties of the language environment

Nativist Perspective--> language acquisition is driven by: innate properties of the child.
The Behaviorist Perspective
Major processes:
-reinforcement: praise for saying words, getting what you ask for, etc.
-imitation: repeating what you hear
Evaluating the Behaviorist View...
Does reinforcement contribute?
-Yes, but: explicit correction is rarely successful--> parents typically attend to correct facts, not linguistic errors (the content).
Does imitation contribute to language development?
Yes, but:
-imitations resemble their own level of production, not parents'
-children produce words & phrases that they have never heard (Pinker)
The Nativist Perspective
Major Hypothesis (Steven Pinker & Noam Chomsky)
1. Language acquisition is uniquely human
2. We're born w/a language acquisition device (LAD)- "mental organ" programmed to recognize the universal (deep) structures of language (Chomsky)
3. There is a biologically driven sensitive period for language acquisition--> have to acquire language during period of brain lateralization (prior to puberty)
Evaluating the Nativist view
Is language uniquely human?
-Complex language w/syntax & grammar is uniquely human
Is there a LAD in the Nativist view?
-Probably there, but no concrete evidence.
Is there a sensitive period for language development in Nativist view?
-Difficult to study systematically
What evidence do we have that Nativist theory may contribute to language acquisition?
Evidence from FIRST language acquisition:
American Sign Language
-3 groups: Native learners (birth), early learners (Preschool/school age), late learners (after puberty)
-Native & early learners much more advanced

Genie (video)
Evidence from SECOND language acquisition?
[Refer to graph on Lang. Development I] Acquiring a second language after puberty is much more tedious, and typically have accent/less fluent.
-Neurological basis for this
An interactionist perspective
Language acquisition appears to be a function of both innate abilities AND environmental stimulation.

*We talk differently to infants and young children than we do to adults!
How are infants born ready to "receive" language?
How do infants perceive speech sounds?
Eimas study: categorical speech perception

-Phonemes
Define phoneme
-Smallest meaningful sound categories in human speech (ex: pa/ba)
Subjects: 1-4 month-old sucking rate procedure
Habituation Task- Hear "Ba1"
Ba-->Pa (continuum)

Test Phase
Hear "Ba 2"- no dishabituation
Hear "Pa"- Dishabituation

*SO infants, like us, perceive speech categorically
Speech perception in infants
Are these categories innate?
-They appear to be, but environment plays a role too, b/c not all languages have same distinctions.
Werker Study
6-8 months: discriminate more categories than parents.
10-12 months: only discriminate categories meaningful in their native language

*They distinguish phonemes that aren't in their language
Infant-Directed Speech (ID)
Speech to infants is different from speech to adults
-How does it sounds different: pitch, more melodic, slower, more expressive
-How words different: baby-talk, made up words, limited vocabulary
-How are sentences different: simpler, shorter, questions, use names

*Babies prefer ID speech
How might ID speech help acquisition?
ID speech is higher pitched
-Importance: easier to hear

ID speech is smooth and connected
-Importance: easier to track or follow

ID speech has exaggerated intonation
-Importance: attracts attention, soothing
Do infants understand expressiveness?
-9 month-olds--> attended to expressiveness, NOT words
-18 months--> confused, understand words AND expressiveness
How did Fernald (1989) demonstrate that even 9-mo-old infants understand the expressiveness of infant-directed speech and how did 18-mo-olds react in this experiment?
*Different melodies in the way approve or prohibit

Tuning makes more of an impact on how children react.

[Ex: "yes good boy" same tone saying "no don't touch"--then the child is more likely to touch]
How does language develop over the course of infancy & toddlerhood?
Language during the First Year
-Reflexive sounds (birth)
-Cooing (~1 month)
-Early Babbling (~4 months)

Recognizable words (~10-18 months)

*Maturation of the vocal tract drives this development.
Werker Study
6-8 months: discriminate more categories than parents.
10-12 months: only discriminate categories meaningful in their native language

*They distinguish phonemes that aren't in their language
How does language develop over the course of infancy & toddlerhood?
Language during the First Year
-Reflexive sounds (birth)
-Cooing (~1 month)
-Early Babbling (~4 months)

Recognizable words (~10-18 months)

*Maturation of the vocal tract drives this development.
How does language develop over the course of infancy & toddlerhood?
Language during the First Year
-Reflexive sounds (birth)
-Cooing (~1 month)
-Early Babbling (~4 months)

Recognizable words (~10-18 months)

*Maturation of the vocal tract drives this development.
Infant-Directed Speech (ID)
Speech to infants is different from speech to adults
-How does it sounds different: pitch, more melodic, slower, more expressive
-How words different: baby-talk, made up words, limited vocabulary
-How are sentences different: simpler, shorter, questions, use names

*Babies prefer ID speech
How might ID speech help acquisition?
ID speech is higher pitched
-Importance: easier to hear

ID speech is smooth and connected
-Importance: easier to track or follow

ID speech has exaggerated intonation
-Importance: attracts attention, soothing
Do infants understand expressiveness?
-9 month-olds--> attended to expressiveness, NOT words
-18 months--> confused, understand words AND expressiveness
How did Fernald (1989) demonstrate that even 9-mo-old infants understand the expressiveness of infant-directed speech and how did 18-mo-olds react in this experiment?
*Different melodies in the way approve or prohibit

Tuning makes more of an impact on how children react.

[Ex: "yes good boy" same tone saying "no don't touch"--then the child is more likely to touch]
The One-Word Stage- Slow & Effortful
What words?
-mostly names for things (ex: mama, dada, ball, juice)
-also--> social words: hi, bye, thank you
action words: more, up
modifiers: hot! mine!
Common errors in One-word Stage
Underextensions- applying verbal labels too narrowly (ex: your own cat is the only 'cat')

Overextensions: Applying verbal labels too broadly
(Ex: "doggie" is over-extension to cats, pigs, horses, 4-legged animals)
When do children over-extend?
Suppose a child just called a fox a "doggie"
Show picture of fox and dog
Ask Child "where's the doggie?"
-They will point to the dog picture

*Although they overextend, they still understand what they can't produce
Conclusion to why children over-extend:
Children overextend due to limited vocabulary
-use reasonable substitute
-they comprehend more than they can produce
The Two-Word Stage
-Telegraphic, two-word sentences
-Rate of word learning INCREASES dramatically
How do children learn words so fast?
Fast mapping- rapidly learning a new word after just one exposure

mutual exclusivity- assuming one label per object
-3 year olds saw familiar (ex: cup) & unfamiliar (ex: whisk) object
-"show me the blicket"
-Children selected unfamiliar object (object that does not already have name)
Whole object assumption
-Expect a new word to refer to a whole object, rather than an attribute or action
Joint attention
-Use social cues (ex: what child & adult are attending to) to help figure out meaning of new word
("look it's a modi!")
When do children comprehend word order?
Synaptic bootstrapping: use of knowledge of grammar to figure out the meaning of new words.

Subjects: one-word speakers
See 2 videos:
CM tickles-->BB OR BB tickles--> CM

Hear: "coookie monster tickles big bird"

Results: Look at the video that corresponds to what they hear
-So, understand word order BEFORE they can produce 2-word sentences
* THEY COMPREHEND MORE THAN THEY CAN PRODUCE!
How do children learn grammar?
-At first, both regular forms & irregular correct (for plurals & past tense) (Ex: mice, run) Just repeating what they hear

-Later overgeneralize
Ex: mouses, runned
Figured out pattern- but overlapping the rule! then, fine tune it all
Putting words & understanding all together
-Learning pragmatics
what does it take to have a conversation
In summary of Language Development II
-Language acquisition is influenced by both innate abilities and environmental stimulation
-Infants are born "ready" to learn any language, and then stop making distinctions that are not useful in their native language
-Qualities of speech to young infants appear to be useful for infant's language acquisition
-Language development over the course of infancy & toddlerhood is aided by cognitive & social development
Review of theory...Children's thought processes are modified by encounters with the world
-Actively seek out information & combine it w/previous knowledge
-Construct knowledge from their experience
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)
Development of representational though:
-Delayed imitation
-Anticipation in problem solving -(moving the flowers so they wouldn't be squashed by door)
-pretend play
-Language
-Symbol-based reasoning
Define Symbol
-something that stands for something else (ex: gesture, word, image)
DeLoache Study
(Snoopy big & little doll)
Subjects: 2.5 and 3 year old children

Scale-Model task: or "hiding Snoopy"

Results: 3 year olds do well (reason symbolically)
2 year olds do poorly
DeLoache Study
Picture Task: same scenario, but with PICTURE instead of scale model

Results: Both 3 year olds & 2.5 year olds do well
Why the difference between pictures and models?
-Picture= specific representation (and children have experiences w/pictures)
-No experience w/models as specific representations
-If make children believe that model = room, than 2.5 year olds succeed!
How do you make children believe that model= room?
"Credible shrinking room"
Preoperational
-child is not yet capable of mental representations of actions that obey logical rules
Limitations of Preoperational Thought (according to Piaget)
1. Child is centered
2. Cannot focus on appearance vs. reality of objects simultaneously
3. Egocentrism
4. Reasoning about causation
5. False beliefs
Child is Centered
-Cannot focus on two aspects simultaneously
Ex: putting stick sizes in order; putting same amount of juice in different shaped cups
Appearance v.s. reality
Limitations
-Focus on appearance ("perception bound")
Ex: egg & blue screen/putting egg behind blue screen & children say egg is blue
Egocentrism
-Tendency to view world solely from own perspective
Tested via 3 mountain task: 3 different sized mts, asking kids to tell them what person can view what.
-Child has to describe one card to the partner (dinosaur w/spots vs. reg. dinosaur)
Reasoning about causation
-children's reasoning about causation--> immature
False beliefs
-Difficulty with the concept that others can hold false beliefs (crayon box with candles in it)
Evaluating Preoperational Thought
(Children's competencies often underestimated)
"How might tasks have underestimated children's ability?"
-Too complicated
-Too tricky
^ Need simpler tasks!
Evaluating Preoperational Thought: Conservation of Number
Preoperational Children are successful:
1. When only 3-4 items are used instead of 6-7
2. If use GROUP LABEL instead of unit label

Piaget: "Do I have have more trees, do you have more trees, or they the same?"---> FAIL!

More RECENT research: "Do I have a bigger forest or do you have a bigger forest, or the same?"--->SUCCEED!

*IMPORTANT*: If focus on whole instead of individual => succeed in keeping track
Appearance vs. Reality
i.Succeed when “real” and “apparent” states are both present
ii.Succeed when scenarios pertain to their “own-experiences.”
Egocentrism
Better when many familiar easy differentiated objects are used. Children do adjust their speech to their listener.
Reasoning About Causation
i.Children perform better when tasks are presented visually rather than verbally.

ii.Reasoning about causation improves markedly when children are asked to reason about familiar objects.
From an information-processing perspective
young children’s cognitive difficulties are caused by general cognitive factors:
-limitations in knowledge,
-memory,
-attentional control,
-speed of processing information

Difficulties may be less in situations where children have prior knowledge or caregivers’ elaborative style encourages remembering.
As children grow older, their performance improves and its unevenness diminishes because the cognitive limitations are gradually reduced through maturation of their brain (hardware) and the development of more effective information-processing strategies (software).
In summary to Cognitive Development in Early Childhood
-Preschoolers' thinking is more sophisticated than originally thought, but they still have several cognitive limitations.
-Children as "scientists"
collect observations, attempt to make sense of them
focus on role of experience and socio-cultural interactions
What do preschoolers understand about themselves?
Who Am I?
Early self-definition: focus on CONCRETE physical, activity-based, and social characteristics.

Later self-definitions (adolescence & beyond): more abstract & psychological, more aware of multiple selves
Other research on Self-Concept
Preschoolers have psychological conceptions of self long before they can express this in trait-like terms
-Answering "who am I?" is hard!
-Preschoolers still have limited language

Tested via procedure that does not require advanced verbal skills
-Eder (1990) study--> ask kid to identify with what puppet is like.
"I like ice cream."
"I don't like ice cream."
(asks kid which one they identify with)
Influences on self-concept
*Social interaction with others
Looking Glass Self
-> self is "mirrored" in reactions of others
->how parents talk to treat their children gets incorporated into self-concept

Chimpanzee Study
-> Chimps raised in complete isolation do not recognize selves
*They're more likely to recognize self if they're raised with other chimps.
Influences on self-concept
*Cognitive changes
Internalization of thought
-Ability to represent alternative experiences (ex: taking on different roles in pretend play)

Advances in memory
-Particularly autobiographical memories
Gender development, do children know stereotypes?
YES!
By age 3: sort toys by gender
-sort occupations by gender
-rather rigid stereotypical behavior
-Later, become more flexible (in their thinking)
Boys' and Girls' preference for gender-stereotyped toys
At 12 months boys and girls play similarly equal with toys or dolls
(Preference for faces may help explain why boys may also look at dolls.)

At 24 months, boys and girls show difference in preference for toys or dolls
(girls less likely to play with vehicles & boys less likely to play with dolls.)
What difference actually exists in gender?
Cognitive Abilities:
-Verbal ability- girls score higher
-Mathematical ability- no diff. until adolescence, then boys score higher; boys better at arithmetic reasoning; girls better at computational skills ( + and - )
-Visual/spatial ability- boys score higher
-Academic achievement- Girls tend to do better in school than boys; by adolescence girls lose edge in math & science
Social Behaviors
-Aggression
-Activity level- boys score higher
-Compliance- Girls score higher (listening to authority & following rules)
-Expressing & interpreting emotions (girls score higher)
How large are the differences in gender?
-Magnitude of effects is typically small
Example: Activity Level graph
Lower end-->girls
Higher end-->boys
In between graph--> MEAN DIFFERENCE BUT LOTS OF OVERLAP!
Where do differences in gender come from?
-Biological factors
-Cognitive factors
-Social factors
Social learning perspective..How do gender differences develop?
-Modeling & imitation
-Reinforcement (encouragement)
-Active reinforcement: "It's ok to cry" to girls, "Don't be a wuss" to boys
-Punishment
Who does the influencing in gender differences?
Parents:
More likely to...
-Encourage girls to express feelings
-Grant boys more autonomy (freedom to do things)

Fathers...
-More rough & tumble play, esp. with boys
-Show most negative reaction to boys playing with girls' toys

Mothers...
-Believe math is harder for girls than boys (despite girls getting better grades)
-Praise girls for verbal ability

Teachers...
-Interrupt girls
-Call on boys
-Praise boys for knowledge, girls for neatness
(^Research done on particularly ONLY FEMALE teachers)
Who does the influencing in gender differences in children?
Peers...
Children- self-segregate by sex from early age

Group norms- evolve within same-sex groups
*Peers react negatively to gender - inconsistent behavior

Media...
-Characters often portrayed in gender stereotypical ways.
In summary of Social Development in early childhood I
-Children's cognitive and social gains help their development of a sense of self over the course of early childhood.
-Gender stereo types have not changed in the past few decades and children pick up on them at a very young age.
What predicts 4 year olds to have a behavior agression--> 18 years old
*The Marshmallow test: those who waited for marshmallows performed better academically at 18 years old.

Children waited: distracted themselves, self-control

Children who did not wait:did not listen for directions, did not have self-control
Self-Control: The Importance of Self-Control
Children's ability to delay gratification at age 4 predicts:
-academic achievement
-social skills
-self-confidence
-ability to cope with stress
^All at the age of 18!

*By delaying gratification, they can cope with what they want until they feel finished with what's important. (Ex: studying for an exam instead of a party)
Aggression
Behaviors INTENDED to hurt or harm another person
Forms of aggression
Overt aggression- physical or verbal behaviors that directly harm or threaten to harm others
-hitting, pushing, pinching
-threatening, name-calling

Relational aggression- harming others through attempts to disrupt their relationships.
(ex: spreading rumors, excluding from group.) "I won't be your friend no more"

*Young children can be aggressive when it comes to territorial things.
What are the causes of aggression?
-Biological Influences
-Cognitive Influences
-Social Influences
-Punishment
Biological Influences that cause aggression?
-Aggression is innate (evolutionary perspective)
-Males more overtly aggressive in almost all cultures (correlated with testosterone)
-antisocial behavior runs in families (twin & adoption studies)
Cognitive Influences that cause aggression?
Social Information Processing- Interpretation of social cues
-intent attributions: determining the intent of others' behaviors from social cues
-cue distortion: misinterpret neutral cues as hostile (AKA hostile attribution bias)
(Ex: when getting cut off in the traffic--> hostile attribution)
Tower building study
Boys compete to build a tower, for a reward; Aggressive & non-aggressive boys identified ahead of time (90 boys grades 2, 4 & 6)
*During building, boy is called out of room and some else goes in...

3 conditions:
1) hostile intent--> "He's got a lot done, I'm going to mess his up"
2)Benign intent-->"I'll help..."
3) Ambiguous intent--> "Gee, he's got a lot done"...(accident)

Results: The tower crashes
*Aggressive kids will more likely react aggressively even though it was an accident.

*only the boys who were aggressive to begin with, interpreted the "ambiguous intent" as hostile. (Cue distortion)
Social Influences that cause aggression?
Children's aggression are rewarded
-75% of aggressive behavior--> positive consequences (Ex: getting the toy they wanted)
-Parent giving in to tantrum=reward

Children model aggressive behavior (imitation)
-Bobo doll study-->children behave aggressively after seeing adult behave aggressively toward Bobo Doll.
-Parental punitiveness assoc. w/aggression in children
Bidirectional: children high in problem behaviors tend to elicit harsher parenting.
Punishment influences that cause aggression?
*So harsh punishment is NOT effective in controlling aggression.
~94% of American parents spank their children by 3-4 years old.

Spanking:
Consequences...
increase immediate compliance
decrease quality parent-child relationship
increase emotional problems
increase aggression
How do we control aggression?
Catharsis: need to "blow off steam" and "vent" to prevent aggressive urges from building up

-No evidence that catharsis is effective in decreasing aggression
Testing usefulness of catharsis
3rd grade boys asked to build a block tower within certain amount of time to win prize. Two groups:
1) interrupted- a confederate interfered and caused amount of time to win
2) Uninterrupted- no interference

Then 1/2 given opportunity to show play gun, 1/2 asked to solve math problems.
Lastly, given opportunity to administer electrical shocks to boy who interfered in task.

Results: -DOES suggest that cognitive interventions may be useful
In summary to Social Development in early childhood II: aggression & self-control
-Biological, cognitive, and social factors all help explain the emergence & maintenance of aggressive behaviors
-Neither harsh punishment nor catharsis are effective in controlling aggression
-Delay of gratification has long-term positive implications