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36 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Self-concept
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The relatively stable set of perceptions you hold of yourself
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Self-esteem
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Involves evaluations of self-worth
-People with high self esteem have positive expectations for how they will communicate, which increases the chances that communication will be successful, and successes contribute to positive self-evaluations, which reinforce self-esteem. -High self esteem doesn't guarantee interpersonal success b/c people with inflated senses of self-worth could irritate others by coming across as condescending know-it-alls, esp. when their self-worth is challenged |
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Development of the self-concept
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At about 6 or 7 months, the child begins to recognize "self" as distinct from surroundings. The concept of "self" is almost exclusively physical, involving the child's basic realization of existing and of possessing certain body parts over which some control is exerted. The evolution of identity is almost totally a product of social interaction.
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Reflected Appraisal
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Perceptions of the judgments of those around you. Your self-concept can be seen, at least in part, as a product of the messages you've received throughout your life. To the extent that you've received supportive messages, you have learned and appreciate and value yourself. To the extent that you've received critical signals, you are less likely to feel valuable, lovable and capable.
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Significant Other
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A person whose evaluations are especially influential (Ex: parent, teacher, romantic partner, a special friend or relative)
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Social comparison
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Evaluating ourselves in terms of how compare with others
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Reference groups
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The people we use to evaluate our own characteristics
Ex: A child's self-concept of "I'm deaf" changed to "I'm different" and then to "I'm deficient" as he compared himself with other students at his school. You can improve a negative self-concept by selecting the "right" group with which to compare yourself and by interpreting others' behavior in a way that confirms a positive view of yourself |
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Self-concept is subjective
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One's self-concept can be at odds w/ others' perception of them and with observable facts.
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Reasons for an unreasonably favorable self-concept
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1) May be based on obsolete information
2) May be due to distorted feedback from others (ex: a child's inflated ego may be based on the praise of doting parents) |
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Reasons for an unreasonable negative self-concept
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1) Obsolete information
2) Distorted feedback from others 3) The myth of perfection common in our society 4) Societal expectations (ex: the convention that it is acceptable to talk freely about our shortcomings while downplaying our accomplishments. -After a while, we begin to believe the statements we repeatedly make. -Affects communication behavior b/c people who dislike themselves are likely to believe that others won't like them either and they accept these real or imagined criticisms as more proof that they are indeed unlikeable people. This low self-esteem is sometimes manifested in hostility toward others, who are seen as "perfect," since the communicator takes the approach that the only way to look good is to put others down. |
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A Healthy Self-Concept is Flexible
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People change and grow and the self-concepts of most communicators react to these changes and these changes affect self-esteem.
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The Self-Concept Resists Change
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Once the self-concept is firmly rooted, the tendency to resist revision is strong and only a powerful force can change it. Rather than changing our self-concept, the tendency is to seek out people who confirm it.
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Cognitive Conservatism
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The tendency to seek information that conforms to an existing self-concept.
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4 Requirements for an appraisal to be regarded as important
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1) The person offering the appraisal must be someone we see as competent to offer it (Ex: parents)
2). The appraisal must be perceived as highly personal. (The more the other person seems to know about us and adapts what is being said to fit us, the more likely we are to accept judgments from this person) 3). The appraisal must be reasonable in light of what we believe about ourselves. (If an appraisal is similar to one we give ourselves, we will believe it; if it is somewhat dissimilar, we will probably still accept it; but if it is completely dissimilar, we will probably reject it. 4). Appraisals that are consistent and numerous are more persuasive than those that contradict usual appraisals or those that occur only once. |
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Self-fulfilling prophecy
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Occurs when a person's expectations of an event and her or his subsequent behavior based on those expectations make the outcome more likely to occur than would otherwise have been true.
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Four stages of a self-fulfilling prophecy
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1. Holding an expectation (for yourself or for others)
2. Behaving in accordance with that expectation 3. The expectation coming to pass 4. Reinforcing the original expectation |
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Types of self-fulfilling prophecy
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1. Self-imposed
2. When one person's expectations govern another's actions |
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Self-imposed self-fulfilling prophecy
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Occur when your own expectations influence your behavior. Ex: Students who perceive themselves as capable achieved more academically.
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Others' expectations govern another's actions causing a self-fulfilling prophecy
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Classic example: Pygmallion in the Classroom --> Children whose teachers were told that they have unusual potential for academic growth showed significantly greater gains in IQ than children who had not been singled out for the teacher's attention even though they were selected at random.
Ex: Patients who are perceived as well by their doctors recover better than those who are perceived as sick. It isn't just the observer's belief that creates a self-fulfilling prophecy for the person who is the target of the expectations. The observer must communicate that belief in order for the prediction to have any effect. In this sense, it is as much a communication phenomenon as a psychological one. |
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The influence of self-fulfilling prophecies
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Their influence can be strong on communication, acting either to improve or harm relationships.
Ex: If you assume that a person is unlikable, you'll probably act in ways that communicate your feelings and the other person's behavior will likely match these expectations b/c we usually don't go out of our way to be nice to people who aren't nice to us. But if you treat the other person as likable, the results are likely to be more positive. The self-fulfilling prophecy doesn't explain all behavior. There are times when the expectation of an event's outcome won't bring it about -Ex: Expecting to draw an ace in a card game from an already shuffled deck |
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Ways to change one's self-concept
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1. Have realistic expectations (important to judge yourself in terms of your own growth and not against the behaviors of others)
2. Have a realistic perception of yourself -Sources of unrealistic perceptions: being overly harsh on yourself, inaccurate feedback from others) -Recognize your strengths and put your shortcomings into perspective by engaging in a period session of "bragging" (acknowledging the parts of yourself with which you're pleased and the ways you've grown) -Seek out supportive people who will acknowledge your assets and point out your shortcomings 3. Have the will to change 4. Have the skill to change -Seek advice from books, instructors, counselors, experts, friends, etc. -Observe models (people who handle themselves in the ways you would like to master) and adapt their behavior to fit your own personal style |
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Identity Management
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The communication strategies people use to influence how others view them
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Perceived Self
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The person you believe yourself to be in moments of honest self-examination
-Not always accurate but powerful b/c we believe it reflects who we are -"Private" b/c we are unlikely to reveal all of it to another person |
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Presenting Self
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The way we want to appear to others
-A public image -Usually a socially approved image (diligent student, loving partner, loyal friend, etc. |
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Face and Facework
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Term coined by sociologist Erving Goffman to describe this socially approved identity
Facework: The verbal and nonverbal ways in which we act to maintain our own presenting image and the images of others -Each of us can be viewed as a kind of playwright who creates roles that we want others to believe and the performer that acts out those roles -Each of us maintains face by putting on a front when we are around others we want to impress -Behavior in the back region (when we are alone) may be quite different |
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Characteristics of Identity Management
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1). We strive to construct multiple identities
2). Identity Management is collaborative 3). Identity management can be deliberate or unconscious 4). People differ in their degree of identity |
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We strive to create multiple identities
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In the course of a single day, we each play a variety of roles: respectful student, friendly neighbor, helpful worker, etc.
-These multiple identities may be independent of one another and may even conflict with one another -The ability to construct multiple identities is one element of communication competence |
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Identity Management is Collaborative
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Identity-related communication is a kind of process theatre in which we improvise scenes in which our character reacts with others
-Collaboration doesn't mean the same thing as agreement -Virtually all conversations provide an arena in which communicators construct their identities in response to the behavior of others |
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Identity management can be deliberative or unconscious
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Sometimes we are highly aware of managing impressions (ex: in an interview or on a first date) but other times we unconsciously act in ways that are really small public performances (ex: communicators engage in facial mimicry only in face to face settings, when they can be seen by the other person.)
Not all behavior is aimed at making impressions, but when our presenting self is questioned by a significant other, the likelihood of acting to prop it up increases. |
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People differ in their degree of identity management
High self-monitors |
Advantages: High self-monitors have the ability to pay attention to their own behavior and others' reactions, adjusting their communication to create the desired impression. They are generally good actors who can create the impression they want, allowing them to handle social situations smoothly, often putting others at ease. They are also good people-readers who can adjust their behavior to get the desired reaction from others.
Disadvantages: Their analytical nature may prevent them from experiencing events completely, since a portion of themselves will always be viewing the situation from a detached position. Their ability to act makes it difficult for others to tell how they are really feeling and b/c they change roles often, they may have a hard time themselves knowing how they really feel |
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Low self-monitors
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Express what they are thinking without paying much attention to the impression their behavior creates.
-Have a more simple, focused idea of who they are and who they want to be -Likely to have a narrower repertoire of behaviors so they can be expected to act in more or less the same way regardless of the situation -Easier to read than high self-monitors ("what you see is what you get") -May make their social interactions less smooth but can be counted on to be straightforward communicators |
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Why manage impressions?
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1) To create and maintain a front to follow social rules (ex: manners)
-To make others feel more comfortable 2) To accomplish personal goals (ex: dressing up for traffic court in the hope that your front as a responsible citizen will convince the judge to treat you accordingly. 3). To achieve relational goals (ex: smiling at an attractive stranger at a party to show that you would like to get better acquainted) -Difficult, or impossible, not to manage impressions b/c you have to send some sort of message so the question is usually not whether or not to present a face, but which face to present |
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Ways to Manage impressions
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Face-to-face vs. mediated identity management
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Face to face identity management
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1) Manner: words and nonverbal actions (the question isn't whether or not your manner sends a message, but whether these messages will be intentional)
2. Appearance: the personal items people use to shape an image (a police officer's uniform and a physician's white lab coat to create a professional image.) 3. Setting: Physical items we use to influence how others view us (ex: choice of car, decoration of house) -Preferred when they feel confident that others support the image they want to present |
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Computer mediated identity management
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First seen as limiting the potential of identity management but now seen as at least as good a tool for identity management as face to face communication.
-Ex: Deception, lying and sex-switching during I*M conversations, designing personal webpages -Can send difficult things without forcing the receiver to respond immediately -Permits the receiver to ignore a message rather than give an unpleasant response -Preferred when one's self-presentation is threatened |
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Identity management and honesty
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Identity management isn't dishonest or deceptive. No matter which face you decide to show others, you are sharing a real part of yourself.
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