Comps

Front 1

Gender differences in academic achievement have decreased in recent years, and there is evidence that, when parents do not have stereotyped beliefs about ___, their daughter are less likely to experience declines in math and science during adolescence.

Back 1

gender roles

Front 2

Studies investigating the impact of Head Start and other compensatory programs suggest that gains in ___ are short-lived but that children who attend these programs have improved attitudes toward school and are less likely to be placed in special education classes and to drop out of high school.

Back 2

IQ test scores

Front 3

A distinguishing feature of the Montessori method is its assumption that learning stems from ___.

Back 3

sense perception

Front 4

TV viewing has been linked to increased levels of ___, reinforcement of sex-role stereotypes, and increased risk for obesity.

Back 4

aggression

Front 5

It is not until age ___ that children understand that TV characters are actors playing a role, and age ___ that they understand that commercials are intended to influence the buying habits of viewers.

Back 5

7; 8

Front 6

Pavlov referred to the stimulus that naturally elicited salivation (or other target response) as the ___ stimulus and the response it elicited as the ___ response.

Back 6

unconditioned; conditioned

Front 7

Pavlov called the neutral stimulus the ___ stimulus and the response it produced after conditioning trials the ___ response.

Back 7

conditioned; conditioned

Front 8

___ conditioning is the most effective type of conditioning and involves presenting the CS so that it ___ presentation of the US.

Back 8

delay; precedes and overlaps

Front 9

___ conditioning, which involves presenting the US before the CS, is rarely effective for establishing a conditioned response.

Back 9

backward

Front 10

Repeated presentation of the CS without the US produces extinction of the ___.

Back 10

CR

Front 11

Pavlov's investigations of extinction revealed that a weak CR is often elicited by the ___ following extinction trials. This is called the ____. Pavlov argued that it proved that once something is learned, it is never forgotten.

Back 11

CS; spontaneous recovery

Front 12

Pavlov found that, following conditioning trials, dogs in his study exhibited ___ generalization, which occurred when a dog responded with a CR to stimuli that were similar to the original ___.

Back 12

stimulus; CS

Front 13

Pavlov discovered that difficult discriminations between stimuli (e.g., btw a circle and an ellipse) produced ___.

Back 13

experimental neurosis

Front 14

___ conditioning occurs when an established CS is consistently presented following a new neutral stimulus so that the new neutral stimulus also produces a CR.

Back 14

Higher-order

Front 15

In higher-order conditioning, the CS is being treated as a(n) ____.

Back 15

US

Front 16

____ occurs when an association has been made btw a CS and US, and the CS and a second neutral stimulus are then presented together prior to the US. In this situation, the second neutral stimulus does not produce a CR.

Back 16

Blocking

Front 17

Watson used classical conditioning to establish phobia in 11 month old boy. This involved pairing presentation of a white rat with a loud noise so that, eventually, the white rat alone elicited a ___.

Back 17

startle response

Front 18

In Watson's classical conditioning, the white rat was a(n) ___ stimulus, while the loud noise was a(n) __ stimulus.

Back 18

conditioned; unconditioned

Front 19

Following conditioning in Watson's experiment, Albert (the boy), exhibited a great deal of ____.

Back 19

stimulus generalization

Front 20

Interventions based on counterconditioning pair a maladaptive behavior with a(n) ___ response in order to eliminate the maladaptive behavior.

Back 20

incompatible

Front 21

Wolpe's ___ pairs anxiety with relaxation or other incompatible and more adaptive responses in order to eliminate the anxiety response.

Back 21

reciprocal inhibition

Front 22

Systematic desensitization involves four stages: relaxation training, construction of an ___, desensitization in imagination, and ____ desensitization.

Back 22

anxiety hierarchy; in vivo

Front 23

Although reciprocal inhibition (counterconditioning) was originally defined as the essential component of systematic desensitization, research using the dismantling strategy suggests that its effectiveness is due to ___ tot he CS without the original US.

Back 23

exposure

Front 24

Behavioral sex therapy makes use of techniques based on counterconditioning. One of these is ___, which involves pairing anxiety-evoking sexual situations with pleasurable physical sensations and relaxation.

Back 24

sensate focus

Front 25

When using in vivo aversion therapy, a target behavior or stimulus associated with that behavior is paired with a stimulus that naturally evokes a(n) ___ response.

Back 25

unpleasant (undesirable)

Front 26

Drinking alcohol might be paired with electric shock so that eventually, the alcohol elicits a fear response and is avoided. In this situation, the alcohol is the ___ stimulus, while the electric shock is the ___ stimulus.

Back 26

conditioned; unconditioned

Front 27

When conducted in imagination, aversion therapy is referred to as ___.

Back 27

covert sensitization

Front 28

According to two-factor theory, phobias are the result of a combination of classical conditioning and ___.

Back 28

negative reinforcement (operant conditioning)

Front 29

From the two-factor theory perspective, a phobia can be eliminated by exposing the individual to the ___ stimulus while prohibiting his/her usual ___ response.

Back 29

conditioned; avoidance

Front 30

In vivo exposure with response prevention is used to treat anxiety responses and is more effective when exposure sessions are ____ rather than brief.

Back 30

massed (prolonged and continuous)

Front 31

___ is a variation of in vivo exposure that involves exposing the individual to the most anxiety arousing stimuli for a prolonged period, while ___ exposure begins with exposure to situations that produce minimal anxiety and progresses to situations that elicit increasingly more intense anxiety levels.

Back 31

Flooding; graduated

Front 32

Implosive therapy is conducted in imagination and combines exposure with ___ interpretations.

Back 32

psychodynamic

Front 33

Although lateral eye movements were identified as an essential component of EMDR, a meta-analysis by Davidson and parker (2001) suggests that its beneficial effects are due to ____.

Back 33

exposure (extinction)

Front 34

Thorndike's law of ___ predicts that a response that is followed by a satisfying state of affairs is likely to be repeated.

Back 34

effect

Front 35

Skinner extended Thorndyke's work and distinguished between two types of consequences: ___ increases the behavior it follows, while ___ decreases the behavior that precedes it.

Back 35

reinforcement; punishment

Front 36

As used by Skinner, the term ___ refers to the application of a stimulus following a behavior and the term ____ refers to the withdrawal of a stimulus.

Back 36

positive; negative

Front 37

____ is occurring when the removal of a stimulus following a behavior increases that behavior.

Back 37

negative reinforcement

Front 38

Operant extinction occurs when reinforcement is withheld from a(n) ____ response.

Back 38

previously reinforced

Front 39

When extinguishing behavior, there's often a temporary increase in the behavior, which is referred to as a(n) ___.

Back 39

extinction (response) burst

Front 40

In operant conditioning, the timing of the reinforcement is important. In general, the rate of acquisition of a behavior is fastest when a(n) ___ schedule is used.

Back 40

continuous

Front 41

A __ schedule is more effective for maintaining a behavior.

Back 41

intermittent (partial)

Front 42

Skinner distinguished between four intermittent schedules. A ___ schedule is associated with a low rate of responding and a "scallop" in the cumulative recording, while a ___ schedule produces a fast, steady rate of responding and responses that are most resistant to extinction.

Back 42

fixed interval; variable ratio

Front 43

The correspondence between the rate of responding to two or more alternatives and the frequency of reinforcement for responding is predicted by the ___.

Back 43

matching law

Front 44

A pigeon learns that it will be reinforced if it pecks a key in the presence of a green light but will not be reinforced in the presence of a red light. The pigeon's key-pecking behavior is under ___, with the green light acting as a ___ stimulus and the red light serving as a __ stimulus.

Back 44

stimulus control; positive discriminative; negative discriminative (S-delta)

Front 45

___ generalization occurs when the stimuli similar to the original discriminative stimulus elicit the same response.

Back 45

Stimulus

Front 46

___ generalization occurs when a discriminative stimulus elicits responses that are similar to the original response.

Back 46

response

Front 47

Escape and avoidance behaviors are both maintained by ___ reinforcement. The establishment of avoidance behaviors also involves ___ conditioning (discrimination training).

Back 47

negative; classical

Front 48

Positive reinforcement is most effective when the reinforcer is delivered ___ the behavior; and up to that point, the greater magnitude of the reinforcer, the greater its effects.

Back 48

immediately after

Front 49

___ reduces the effectiveness of reinforcement.

Back 49

satiation

Front 50

Prompts facilitate the acquisition of a new behavior and the gradual removal of prompts is referred to as ___.

Back 50

fading

Front 51

Shaping, one form of positive reinforcement, involves reinforcing ___ to the desired behavior.

Back 51

successive approximations

Front 52

Shaping should not be confused with ___, which involves establishing a sequence of responses.

Back 52

chaining

Front 53

When using the Premack principle, a ___ behavior serves as a reinforcer for a behavior that does not occur often enough; and when using ___, the target behavior is ignored and alternative behaviors are reinforced.

Back 53

high-frequency; differential reinforcement

Front 54

Punishment is most effective when it is applied at the ___ of the target behavior and when it is applied on a (n) ___ schedule.

Back 54

onset; continuous

Front 55

To avoid ___, punishment should be administered in moderate intensity from the start rather than beginning with a weak form and gradually increasing its intensity.

Back 55

habituation

Front 56

It's important to keep in min that punishment does not eliminate behavior but merely ___ it.

Back 56

suppresses

Front 57

Overcorrection consists of two procedures that can be used individually or together: ___ requires the person to overcorrect the effects of his/her behavior, while ___ requires the person to practice alternative and more appropriate behaviors.

Back 57

restitution; positive practice

Front 58

Response cost entails removing a ___ each time the target behavior occurs, while ___ involves removing all sources of reinforcement for a prespecified period of time following the behavior.

Back 58

positive reinforcer; time-out

Front 59

Operant extinction involves withholding reinforcement from a ___ behavior to decrease that behavior.

Back 59

previously reinforced

Front 60

To maximize the effectiveness of operant conditioning, the reinforcement must be ___ withheld.

Back 60

consistently

Front 61

One problem with extinction is that its use may produce a temporary ___ in the target behavior.

Back 61

increase (extinction burst)

Front 62

A contingency contract is a formal written agreement between two or more parties about the behaviors that are to be modified and the ___ that will follow those behaviors.

Back 62

rewards and punishments

Front 63

A token economy is a structured environment in which desirable behaviors are increased by reinforcing them with ___ reinforcers (tokens) that can be exchanged for ___ reinforcers, while undesirable behaviors are decrease by removing or withholding reinforcers.

Back 63

generalized secondary; back-up (primary)

Front 64

Function-based interventions are derived from the results of a functional behavioral assessment, which identifies the characteristics of the target behavior and its ___.

Back 64

antecedents and consequences

Front 65

Dolman's research with rats in mazes suggested that the rates formed cognitive maps, thereby providing evidence of ___ learning.

Back 65

latent

Front 66

Kohler proposed that ___ learning involves internal cognitive restructuring of the environment that allows the organism to achieve its goals.

Back 66

insight

Front 67

According to Bandura, observational learning involves four processes; attention, ___, production, and motivation.

Back 67

retention

Front 68

Research on observational learning suggests that ___ modeling is the most effective form of modeling for treating phobias and that ___ models are more effective than mastery models.

Back 68

participant; coping

Front 69

Bandura also proposed that a person's self-efficacy beliefs are a primary source of motivation and are affected by four informational sources: inactive attainment, ___ experience, verbal persuasion, and emotional and physiological states.

Back 69

vicarious

Front 70

Bandura's notion of ___ predicts that there's an interactive and influential relationship between a person's environment, overt behaviors, and personal characteristics.

Back 70

reciprocal determinism

Front 71

The reformulated version of the learned helplessness model describes depression as the result of ___ attributions about negative events.

Back 71

internal, stable, and global

Front 72

The reformulated model of the learned helplessness model was revised to incorporate the impact of a sense of ____.

Back 72

hopelessness

Front 73

Rational-emotive behavior (REBT) therapy conceptualizes behavior in terms of an 'A-B-C chain" where A is an external event, B is the individual's ____, and C is the ___.

Back 73

beliefs about A; emotional or behavioral result of B

Front 74

In REBT, an emotional or behavioral response to an event (A) is due to ___ about that event rather than to the event itself.

Back 74

beliefs

Front 75

Cognitive ___ are structures and rules that determine how people codify, categorize, and interpret their experiences.

Back 75

schemas

Front 76

Schemas develop early in life and may be dormant until they're activated by ___.

Back 76

internal or external stress

Front 77

___ are "surface level cognitions" that intercede between n event and a person's emotional or behavioral response to that event.

Back 77

automatic thoughts

Front 78

____ are systematic errors in information processing that link maladaptive cognitive schemas and negative automatic thoughts.

Back 78

cognitive distortions

Front 79

Cognitive distortions include ___, which involve drawing conclusions without corroborative evidence, and ___, which involves attending to details while ignoring the total context.

Back 79

arbitrary inference; selective abstraction

Front 80

Depression, according to Beck, involves the cognitive triad of a negative view of oneself, the world, and the ___.

Back 80

future

Front 81

The primary goal of cognitive therapy is to modify the client's dysfunctional beliefs and assumptions. This is achieved through the development of a ___ therapist-client relationship and the use of broad range of cognitive and behavioral techniques.

Back 81

collaborative

Front 82

___ dialogue (questioning) is used to help the client reach logical conclusions about his/her problem.

Back 82

socratic

Front 83

An early homework assignment in cognitive therapy requires the client to keep a Daily Record of ___.

Back 83

Dysfunctional Thoughts

Front 84

Self-instructional training was originally used to help impulsive and hyperactive children perform tasks more successfully. It involves fives stages: cognitive modeling, ___, overt self-instruction, fading overt self-instruction, and ___.

Back 84

cognitive participant modeling; covert self-instruction

Front 85

In self-instruction training, ____ is used to eliminate obsessive rumination, self-criticism, and other unwanted thoughts and involves such techniques as covertly yelling "stop" or snapping a rubber band placed around the wrist.

Back 85

thought stopping

Front 86

The goal of attribution retraining is to help clients attribute their failures to ___ factors.

Back 86

external, unstable, and specific

Front 87

Stress inoculation is designed to help ppl deal with stressful events by increasing their coping skills. It includes 3 stages: cognitive preparation, ___, and application and follow-through.

Back 87

skills acquisition and rehearsal

Front 88

According to Rehm, depression is related to deficits in self-monitoring, ___, and self-reinforcement.

Back 88

self-evaluation

Front 89

Lewinsohn's behavioral model attributes depression to a low rate of___.

Back 89

response-contingent reinforcement.

Front 90

The self-management procedures include a variety of techniques that emphasize the client's responsibility for modifying his or her own behavior. Self-monitoring is not only useful as an assessment tool but is also helpful for ___.

Back 90

promoting behavior change

Front 91

Behavior that is under ___ is influenced by the presence or absence of certain stimuli.

Back 91

stimulus control

Front 92

Biofeedback provides an individual with immediate performance feedback about a response that is usually considered involuntary. Several studies suggest that ___ is as effective as biofeedback for tension headaches, hypertension, anxiety, and insomnia.

Back 92

relaxation training

Front 93

Thermal biofeedback may be the treatment-of-choice for ___ disease, and a combination of thermal feedback and ___ is the best approach for migraine headaches.

Back 93

Raynaud's; autogenic training

Front 94

The information processing (multi-store) model divides memory into three components: ___ stores a great deal of information but retains it for a very brief period of time. Information is transferred to STM when it becomes the ___. The capacity of STM is limited by can be expanded by ___ related items of information.

Back 94

sensory memory; focus of attention; chunking

Front 95

The aspect of STM known as ___ is responsible for the manipulation and processing of information.

Back 95

working memory

Front 96

WIth ___, information is transferred from short-term to long-term memory, especially when it is elaborative.

Back 96

rehearsal

Front 97

The existence of separate stores is supported by studies on the ___ effect.

Back 97

serial position

Front 98

According to the levels-of-processing model, the ___ level represents the deepest level of processing and produces the greatest amount of recall.

Back 98

semantic

Front 99

Procedural memory stores information on ___, while declarative memory mediates the acquisition of ___.

Back 99

how to do things; facts and the information

Front 100

One aspect of declarative memory, __ memory, contains common-sense knowledge and knowledge about language and the rules of logic and inference.

Back 100

semantic

Front 101

___ memory stores information about personal experiences.

Back 101

episodic

Front 102

___ memory is sometimes classified as a component of declarative memory and refers to the ability to remember to do things in the future.

Back 102

prospective

Front 103

According to Baddeley's multi-component model, working memory consists of four components- the ___, which acts as an "attentional control system" and coordinates the phonological look, visa-spatial sketchpad, and ___.

Back 103

episodic buffer

Front 104

Broadbent's filter theory was the first "bottleneck" theory of attention and explains how info is transferred from ___.

Back 104

sensory memory to STM

Front 105

The accuracy of memory is affected by existing ___, or cognitive structures that can bias the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Back 105

schemas

Front 106

Trace decay theory predicts that memories fade over time as the result of ___.

Back 106

disuse

Front 107

Interference theory proposes that forgetting memories is due either to ___ interference, which occurs when newly-learned info inhibits previously-learned info, or __ interference, which occurs when previously-learned info disrupts the learning or recall of subsequent material.

Back 107

retroactive; proactive

Front 108

Research on ___ learning has shown that recall of info is sometimes better when the learner is in the same emotional state during learning and recall.

Back 108

state-dependent

Front 109

The ___ involves visually associating items with a series of places already in memory, while the ___ mnemonic entails forming a word from the first letters of the words or phrases to be remembered.

Back 109

method of loci; acronym

Front 110

According to the Yerkes-Dodson Law, ____ levels of arousal maximize the efficiency of learning and performance.

Back 110

moderate