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195 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is scaling?
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the importance of size
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What is the largest vertebrate?
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blue whale
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What is the smallest vertebrate?
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tropical frog
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Who is gravity more important for?
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larger animals
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Who are surface forces more important to?
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small animals
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What do differences in size impact the structure and performance of an animal?
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because of basic geometry
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A cube that is ________ in length will have a _______ larger proportional change in surface area and volume.
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doubled
larger |
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Surface area increases in proportion to the ______ of increase in linear dimension.
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square
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Volume increases in proportion to the _______ of increase of linear dimension.
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cube
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Small animals have _____ oxygen consumption.
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high
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Small animals have _____ heat loss because of high area to volume ratio.
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high
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Small animals have ____ metabolic rate (lots of heat produced).
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heat
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Large animals have _____ oxygen consumption.
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lower
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Large animals have ____ metabolic rate.
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lower
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Large animals have ____ heat loss because of low area to volume ratio.
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lower
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Large animals have ________ growth of body.
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allometric
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What is proportionate growth of entire body?
i.e. salamander |
isometric
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What is disproportionate growth of parts of body?
i.e. humans |
allometric growth
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How is allometric growth studied?
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transformation grids
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When does allometric growth occur?
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development and phylogeny
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What is the use of engineering and physical concepts to understand?
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biomechanics
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What physical properties are important to biological design?
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force
mass velocity acceleration |
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What physical laws are importance in biomechanics?
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Newton's laws
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What quantities have magnitude, but no direction?
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scalar quantities
i.e. time and temp |
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What quantities have magnitude and direction and dictate vertebrate morphology?
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vector quantities
i.e. force and velocity |
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System of bones and muscle acts as a _________
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machine
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__________ generate force.
__________ apply force. |
muscles
bones |
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_______ act as a system of levers.
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Bones
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Muscles apply ______ to the lever arms.
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torque
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Which muscle has a high velocity ratio so it is most effective during high-speed running?
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medial gluteus
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What has a high mechanical advantage--most effective during low-speed accelerations?
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semimembranosus
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What is the opening of the jaw that involves complex movement?
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kinematic chain
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What is the resisting force applied against the way a body is moving?
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drag
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What produces drag?
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any body moving through a fluid
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Viscosity and density of water is _____.
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high
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What have aquatic vertebrates evolved to minimize?
(2 things) |
friction and turbulence
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What types of forces does a bone withstand (3 types)?
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compressive
tensile shear |
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What type of material is bone?
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composite
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What is bone matrix made from?
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hydroxyapatite (calcium phosphate)
collagen (protein fibers) |
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Which way are bones frequently loaded?
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asymmetrically (usually tensile forces)
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Where is stress concentrated on a bone?
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surface (not inside)
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What is spongy bone made of?
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delicate spicules called trabeculae
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Where does trabeculae lie?
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along lines of internal stress
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What type of bone carries the most force?
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compact
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What is a decrease in bulk if unused and without stress?
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atrophy
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What is an increase in bulk if used heavily?
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hypertrophy
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What type of tissue is bone?
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adynamic
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What is the ectoderm?
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skin (epidermis) and nervous system
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What are the components of the ectoderm?
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mouth
cloaca neural crest placodes |
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What is the endoderm?
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digestive tract and associated accessory glands (liver, pancreas)
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What are the components of the endoderm?
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lungs
esophagus stomach intestines bladder |
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What is the mesoderm?
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skeleton, muscle, circulatory system
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What does the epimere include?
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somitomeres (in head)
somites |
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What is a dermatome?
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skin (dermis)
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What is the myatome?
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segmental muscles (appendicular and axial)
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What is the scleratome?
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vertebrae
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What is a mesomere?
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kidney
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What are hypomeres?
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limbs
parietal peritoneum mesenteries (visceral peritoneum) heart, circulatory system (vessels) gonads |
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What is the sequence of early cleavage stages?
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zygote -- morola -- blastula
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What are species differences during embryology?
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amount and distribution of yolk in egg
complexity of layers outside egg embryo planes of cleavage (how yolks are distributed can effect cleavage) pattern of germ cell layer formation |
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What is the formation of 3 germ layers?
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gastrulation
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What are the 3 germ layers?
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mesoderm
ectoderm endoderm |
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What is included in the ectoderm in gastrulation?
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skin epidermis
brain spinal cord |
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What is included in the mesoderm in gastrulation?
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skin
dermis muscles bones kidneys gonads heart blood vessels |
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What is included in the endoderm in gastrulation?
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gut
liver pancreas bladder pharynx lungs |
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What are ectodermal cells that enter embryo as neural tube forms?
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neural crest
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What does the neural crest migrate and become?
(5 things) |
spinal/cranial ganglia
Schwann cells Adrenal medulla skin pigment cells (chromatophores) lower jaw bone & cartilage |
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What do NOT arise from neural crest cells?
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placods
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What are ectodermal cells that form thick patches over parts of head/anterior body?
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placodes
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What types of sensory functions are included in the placodes?
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sensory nerves in head
sensory receptors (optic, olfactory, lateral line, lens of eye) |
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What are the 3 steps in the creation of organ systems?
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differentiation
histogenesis organogensis |
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What is the specialization of precursor cells in germ layers?
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differentiation
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What groups of cells are created in histogenesis (tissue formation)?
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epithelia
connective muscle nervous |
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What is the creation of organs from collections of several tissues?
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organogenesis
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What are the 3 types of epithelia?
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simple/stratified
squamous/cuboidal/columnar membranes/glands |
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What are the 4 types of general connective tissues?
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mesenchyme
adipose areolar fibrous |
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What is embryonic connective tissue (loose collection of cells)?
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mesenchyme
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What tissue functions as fat storage?
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adipose
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What tissue holds all other tissues together?
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areolar
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What tissue includes tendons, ligaments, and skin dermis?
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fibrous
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What are the 3 types of special tissue?
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blood
cartilage bone |
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What is softer and more pliable than bone, but withstands compressive forces?
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cartilage
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What is the most common type of cartilage with few fibers?
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hyaline cartilage
i.e. tips of ribs |
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What is the strongest type of cartilage with collagen fibers?
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fibrocartilage
i.e. intervertebral disks |
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What is the most flexible type of cartilage with elastin fibers?
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elastic cartilage
i.e. ears |
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What is bone made of?
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cylinders of matrix and cells called osteons or haversion systems
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Where do blood vessels pass through in bone?
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central canal
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What cells maintain old bone?
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osteocytes
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What cells make new bone matrix?
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osteoblasts
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What cells degrade bone matrix?
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osteoclasts
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What are the 4 types of general connective tissues?
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mesenchyme
adipose areolar fibrous |
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What is embryonic connective tissue (loose collection of cells)?
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mesenchyme
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What tissue functions as fat storage?
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adipose
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What tissue holds all other tissues together?
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areolar
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What tissue includes tendons, ligaments, and skin dermis?
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fibrous
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What are the 3 types of special tissue?
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blood
cartilage bone |
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What is softer and more pliable than bone, but withstands compressive forces?
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cartilage
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What is the most common type of cartilage with few fibers?
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hyaline cartilage
i.e. tips of ribs |
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What is the strongest type of cartilage with collagen fibers?
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fibrocartilage
i.e. intervertebral disks |
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What is the most flexible type of cartilage with elastin fibers?
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elastic cartilage
i.e. ears |
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What is bone made of?
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cylinders of matrix and cells called osteons or haversion systems
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Where do blood vessels pass through in bone?
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central canal
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What cells maintain old bone?
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osteocytes
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What cells make new bone matrix?
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osteoblasts
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What cells degrade bone matrix?
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osteoclasts
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What is densely packed osteons of bone?
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compact bone
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What is intromembraneous bone?
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no cartilage stage
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What type of bone uses endochondral growth?
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long bones
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What appears from mesenchyme?
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cartilage model
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Where is cartilage first converted to bone?
(along length of shaft) |
diaphysis
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When does the diaphysis on a bone become hollow?
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as blood vessels enter
medullary cavity |
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What occurs at the end of the bone (epiphysis)?
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secondary ossification
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Where do primary and secondary ossification centers meet on a bone?
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metaphysis
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On the skull, what develops from cartilage fragments?
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chondrocranium
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What 3 structures compose the skull?
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chondrocranium
splanchnocranium dermatocranium |
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What is included in the chondrocranium?
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trabeculla
polar parachordal occipital cartilages nasal, optic, and otic capsules |
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The chondrocranium is prominent in __________. It grows over the brain.
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elasmobranchs
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What is ossified in other vertebrates to create the core region of the skull?
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ethmoid, sphenoid, and occipital bones
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What is the oldest part of the skull?
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splanchnocranium
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What arose from support of pharyngeal slits?
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splanchnocranium
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What supports the gills and forms parts of jaws and hyoid?
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splanchnocranium
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What is the most obvious structure of the skull in fish?
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splanchnocranium
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What part of the jaw arose from the anterior part of branchial arches?
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splanchnocranium
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What is composed of dermal bones in the skull?
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dermatocranium
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What skulls are largely dermatocranium?
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amniote skulls
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In amniotes, what does the dermatocranium form?
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braincase
neurocranium roof of mouth |
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What term refers to how the jaw is attached to the skull?
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suspensorium
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What is direct attachment of the mandible to the braincase (early fish)?
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euautostylic
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What is the attachment of the mandible to the braincase with help from the hyomandibula (early fish & sharks)?
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amphyistyllic
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What is the attachment of the mandible to the braincase when the hyomandibula forms the stapes and jaw is attached directly to skull (amphibians, reptiles and birds)?
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hyostylic
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What is the attachment of the mandible to the braincase when the upperjaw is part of the braincase and the lower jaw is made from dermal bone?
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craniostylic
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Where to palatoquadrate and Meckel's cartilages form?
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incus and malleus (hearing in mammals)
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What is the kinetic skull referring to?
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multiple joints used when the mouth opens
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What are features of the kinetic skull?
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mouth opens wide- can eat whole prey
used in suction feeding in water food grasped by teeth teeth replaced often |
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What is the akinetic skull referring to?
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single joint used when mouth opens
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What supports the gills and forms parts of jaws and hyoid?
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splanchnocranium
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What is the most obvious structure of the skull in fish?
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splanchnocranium
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What part of the jaw arose from the anterior part of branchial arches?
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splanchnocranium
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What is composed of dermal bones in the skull?
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dermatocranium
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What skulls are largely dermatocranium?
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amniote skulls
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In amniotes, what does the dermatocranium form?
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braincase
neurocranium roof of mouth |
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What term refers to how the jaw is attached to the skull?
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suspensorium
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What is direct attachment of the mandible to the braincase (early fish)?
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euautostylic
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What is the attachment of the mandible to the braincase with help from the hyomandibula (early fish & sharks)?
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amphyistyllic
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What is the attachment of the mandible to the braincase when the hyomandibula forms the stapes and jaw is attached directly to skull (amphibians, reptiles and birds)?
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hyostylic
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What is the attachment of the mandible to the braincase when the upperjaw is part of the braincase and the lower jaw is made from dermal bone?
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craniostylic
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Where to palatoquadrate and Meckel's cartilages form?
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incus and malleus (hearing in mammals)
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What is the kinetic skull referring to?
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multiple joints used when the mouth opens
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What are features of the kinetic skull?
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mouth opens wide- can eat whole prey
used in suction feeding in water food grasped by teeth teeth replaced often |
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What is the akinetic skull referring to?
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single joint used when mouth opens
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What are the layers of the epidermis?
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basement membrane
stratum basale periderm |
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What is derived from dermatome (somite)?
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dermis
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What are the underlying connective tissues of the integument?
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hypodermis
superficial fascia |
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What occurs during growth of the integument?
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invasion of the dermis
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What to neural crest cells produce?
(3) |
chromatophores (pigment cells)
blood vessels nerves |
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What happens to the epidermis for protection?
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it is keratinized
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What does the stratum basale undergo?
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mitosis
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What are cells accumulating keratin?
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keratinocytes
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What is the outer layer of dead keratinocytes?
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stratum corneum
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What is skin with a thick stratum corneum?
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callus
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What produces scales in an armadillo skin that can wrinkle?
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dermal bone
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What are keratin structures projecting from follicles in the dermis?
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hair
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What are adjacent to or around hair papillae that produce keratin?
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matrix cells (stratum basale)
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What erect hair in response to cold or fear?
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arrector pili
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What are used for nocturnal motion detection?
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vibrissae (whiskers)
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What is the cavity lined with olfactory epithelium?
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nasal sac
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How many external openings does the nasal sac of a fish have?
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2 (naris)
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What is included in the nasal sac of a tetrapod?
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external naris
internal naris fluid |
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What communicates with buccal cavity and permits breathing while eating and mouth is closed?
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internal naris
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How does fluid from the eye enter the nasal sac?
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nasolacrimal duct
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Who has a primary palate?
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reptiles
internal naris opens into front of buccal cavity |
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Who has a secondary palate?
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mammals
internal naris opens into back of buccal cavity allows food to stay in mouth longer for chewing |
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What are holes in temporal bone of tetrapods?
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temporal fenestrae
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What are the benefits of temporal fenestrae?
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provides new surfaces for muscle attachments
lighter skulls |
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What do birds cover their upper and lower jaws with?
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keratin sheath
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Bone fusion causes number of bones to _____________.
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decrease
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Where are temporal bones in mammals derived from?
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squamosal
petrosal and mastoid styloid process and middle ear bones |
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What type of bones use intramembranous growth?
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membrane bones
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What do flat layers of mesenchyme secrete?
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bone matrix
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What is continued bone deposition?
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appositional growth
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What type of bones are formed within a tendon
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sesamoid bones
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In fish, amphibians, and many reptiles, what is the coelom divided into?
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pericardial cavity
pleuroperitoneal cavity |
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What separates the pericardial cavity from the pleuroperitoneal cavity?
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transverse septum
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In mammals, birds, and some reptiles, what is the coelom divided into?
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pleural cavity
pericardial cavity peritoneal cavity |
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What separates the pleural and peritoneal cavities?
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diaphragm
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What are keratin structures projecting from follicles in the dermis?
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hair
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What are adjacent to or around hair papillae that produce keratin?
|
matrix cells
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What erect hair in response to cold or fear?
|
arrector pili muscles
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What are used for nocturnal motion detection?
|
whiskers
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What are thickened hairs for defense?
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quills
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What produce oily secretion to protect hair?
|
sebaceous glands
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What produce watery secretion (sweat) to cool our body?
|
sweat glands
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What are used for social communication?
|
scent glands
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What develops in both sexes -- begins as an ectodermal ridge?
|
milk line
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What increase under female hormones?
|
ducts and alveoli
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