Community

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Definition of community psychology:

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concerns the relationships of the individual to communities and society. Through collaborative research and action, community psychologists seek to understand and enhance quality of life for individuals, communities, and society.

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Dalton and Wandersman: 7 core values

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1. Individual wellness: prevention of maladaptive behavior, developing competencies, social support in coping, intervention in non-clinical settings (e.g., schools)
2. Sense of community: perception of belongingness, interdependence, strengthen neighborhoods and other communities (e.g., church groups)
3. Social justice: fair allocation of resources, social and economic factors accounted for in research
4. Citizen participation: peaceful, collaborative decision making, mutual aid, communities define own problems
5. Collaboration and community strengths: identify and employ expertise and resources of those they work with
6. Respect for human diversity: identify strengths and survival skills of all cultures, adapting methods to be sensitive to culture
7. Empirical grounding: accept that no research is value free, qualitative and quantitative methods

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Dalton and Wandersman: 6 tenets

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1. Collaboration
2. Empowerment
3. Ecological specificity
4. Social change
5. Prevention: primary, secondary, tertiary
6. Diversity

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Kelly (1970). Antidotes to arrogance. (10)

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1. Broaden definition of therapeutic activities
2. Expand definition for criteria of competent helper
3. Become participants in communities
4. Field assessment and the selection of community psychologists
5. Continuous interdisciplinary interaction
6. Longitudinal perspective
7. Mixing theory and practice
8. Taking advantage of community events
9. Identification of community resources
10. Updating the community psychology

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Origin of community psychology: Anderson et al. (1966).

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Community psychology: A report from the Boston conference on the education of psychologists for community mental health., Swampscott Conference 1965

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Origin of community psychology: Keys (1987). Synergy, prevention and the Chicago school of sociology.

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Prevention of delinquency:
1. Emphasis on synergy of theory, research, and practice
2. Importance of social and community levels of analysis
3. Combination of quantitative and qualitative methods
4. The use of citizen participation.

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Origin of community psychology: Dalton, Elias, and Wandersman (2001): Context

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1. Socio political changes in America affect how people view social problems and address them.
2. Progressive times
3. Environmental explanations of social problems favored
4. 1890 to 1914: Settlement houses, psych clinics, birth control, maternal health, early civil rights
5. Post WWII: Rise of preventive perspective, reforms of MHC, rise of action research.
6. 1960 to 1970s: Community psychology diverged from CMH (Swampscott Conference 1965)

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Origin of community psychology: Dalton, Elias, and Wandersman (2001): Current trends:

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1. Prevention and promotion
2. Community building, citizen participation, empowerment
3. Diversity
4. Interdisciplinary research

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Problem definition: Rappaport et al. (1975).

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Alternatives to blaming the victim or the environment: Our places to stand have not moved the earth.

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Problem definition: Sarason (1981).

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An asocial psychology and a misdirected clinical psychology.

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Problem definition: Ryan (1971).

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The art of savage discovery
1. Attributes defects and inadequacy to malignant nature of poverty, injustice, slum life, racial differences located within the victim.
2. Ignores the continuing effect of victimizing social forces: justifies changing the victim instead of society.

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Prevention and Promotion: Dalton (2001)

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1. Prevention: Identify risk factors for disorders and aim to reduce them
2. Promotion: Promoting/strengthening overall health vital to identified risk factors that promote health
3. Risk: features that reduce bio/psycho/social capabilities of individual to maintain wellbeing and promote adaptive functioning
4. Protection: Opposite of risk
5. Resilience: Adapt to adverse, challenging, threatening contexts
6. Strengths: Person’s assets and how they are used in difficult times
7. Thriving: Excel, extent to which on experiences positive gains despite adverse life circumstances.

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Prevention and Promotion: Albee (1982). Preventing psychopathology and promoting human potential.

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1. Primary prevention emphasizes the reduction of unnecessary stress (oppression, racism, poverty, unemployment), including powerlessness and the enhancement of social competence, self esteem, and support networks
2. One on one psychotherapy is a hopeless approach: large number need help, small number of helpers.
3. Opposition to prevention/pitfalls:
a. unhappiness does not equal mental illness & prevention not proven to work,
b. just world theory that blames deficits as based in individual inferiority.
c. does not consider outside influences such as poverty and powerlessness & belief in Social Darwinism: helping weak will lead to disadvantage of human race

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Prevention and Promotion: Weissberg (2003). Prevention that works for children and youth.

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1. Uses a research-based risk and protective factor framework that involves families, peers, schools, and communities as partners to target multiple outcomes.
2. Long-term age specific, culturally appropriate
3. Fosters development of individuals who are health fully engaged through teaching social emotional skills and ethical values
4. Aims to establish policies, institutional practices and environmental supports that nurture optimal development
5. Selects, trains, and supports skilled staff
6. Incorporates evidence based programming to meet community needs (planning, development, improvement)

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Prevention and Promotion: Weinstein (2002). Expectations and high school change.

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1. Multilevel outcomes of a collaborative prevention intervention for 9th graders at risk for high school failure
2. Qualitative and quantitative
3. Teachers, administrative staff, researchers implemented innovative practices communicating positive expectations for achieving adolescents
4. Curriculum, grouping, evaluation, motivation, student responsibility, relationships

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Prevention and Promotion: Caplan: primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention

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1. Primary prevention: intervention given to entire population before entering a condition of need/stress
a. Goal is to reduce potentially harmful circumstances before they create difficulty
2. Secondary prevention: Intervention given to population showing early signs of disorder
a. Target at risk, possibility of stigma
3. Tertiary prevention: Intervention given to a population with a disorder

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Prevention and Promotion: Bower’s Model: With a good, loving KISS, people need less AID and fewer need to be treated with ICE

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1. Key Integrated Social Systems (KISS): formal and informal settings in which individuals interact throughout life
a. E.g., family, school, peers, workplace, etc.
2. Ailing in Difficulty (AID): short term support
a. E.g., guidance counseling, police departments, outpatient services
3. Illness Correctional Endeavors (ICE): long term health/mental health care
a. E.g., psychiatric hospitals, prisons, long term health care facilities

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Durlak and Wells (1997). Primary prevention mental health programs for children and adolescents.

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1. Problems with primary prevention:
a. Hard to determine that problem has not already developed
b. Multicomponent program: what is responsible for change?
c. How or when healthy children develop problems
2. Results of meta analysis:
a. Primary prevention programs achieve significant positive effects
b. Increased competencies in multiple domains
c. Similar or higher effects to other treatment programs

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Prevention and Promotion: Cowen (2000) Now that we know that primary prevention in mental health is great, what is it?

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1. Primary prevention demonstrated for: behavioral/social problems, learning problems, alcohol/drug abuse, physical health, injuries, child maltreatment
2. Primary prevention vs. Wellness enhancement
a. Goal: Prevent psychological disorder vs. Maximize psychological wellness
b. Strategy: Identify and neutralize effects of risk factors vs. Identify conditions promoting wellness
c. Objectives: Prevent serious psychological disorder vs. Enhance wellness and skills, augment life satisfaction, root efficacy, prevent serious disorders
d. Targets: At risk groups vs. All people
e. Timing: Windows of opportunity vs. Diverse levels and approaches across the lifespan
f. Scope: narrow vs. broad
g. Duration: brief vs. possibly over the lifespan
h. Payoff: reduction of occurrence of targeted psychological disorder vs. immediate goal of promoting wellness and ultimate goal of reducing disorders
i. Current interest: substantial because of short term reduction of specific disorders vs. low because it is nonspecific and futuristic

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Prevention and Promotion: Miller & Shinn. Learning from communities overcoming difficulties in dissemination of prevention/promotion efforts

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1. Dissemination of prevention programs to communities fails for four reasons:
1. The model of dissemination of programs to communities fails to consider community and organizational capacity to implement programs
2. Ignores the need for congruence in values between programs and host sites
3. Displays a pro innovation bias that undervalues indigenous practices
4. Assumes a simplistic model of how community organizations adopt innovations.
2. New directions:
1. Researchers should locate, study, and disseminate successful indigenous programs that fit community capacity and values
2. Build on theoretical models of how locally developed programs work to make existing programs and policies more effective.

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Empowerment: Rappaport (1981). In praise of paradox.

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1. Empowerment: a process, a mechanism by which people, organizations, and communities gain mastery over their affairs
2. The idea of prevention is the logical extension of a needs model that views people in difficulty as children
3. The idea of advocacy is an extension of the rights model of people as citizens
4. Both of these are one sided
5. Empowerment model for a social policy views people as complete human beings, creates a sense of urgency, requires attention to paradox, and expects divergent and dialectical rather than convergent solutions.
6. Foster the legitimacy of more rather than fewer, different rather than the same, ways to deal with problems in living.

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Empowerment: Zimmerman (2000). Empowerment theory.

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1. Participation, control, critical awareness are essential aspects of empowerment.
2. Multilevel construct:
a. Individual level: Belief in one’s ability to exert control, involvement in decision making, and an understanding of causal agents
b. Organizational level: Settings that provide individuals with opportunities to exert control and organizational effectiveness in service delivery and their policy process
c. Community level: Contexts in which organizations and individuals interact to enhance community living and ensure their community addresses local needs and concerns

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Empowerment: Foster Fishman (1998). Empirical support for the critical assumptions of empowerment theory.

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1. Individual desire and capacity for empowerment and its interaction with the environment
2. Dynamic interplay between the person and environment that creates the infrastructure for empowerment
3. What are the individual and organizational preconditions for empowerment?
4. How do the preconditions interact in the organizational culture?
5. What kind of person/environment fit is needed for empowerment to flourish?
6. A priori conclusions about research can bias interpretation of population’s experience

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Empowerment: Riger (1993). What’s wrong with empowerment?

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1. Sense of empowerment (individual based construct) is not the same as actual power
2. Most interventions seek to “empower” members but they do not lead to a redistribution of resources or an increase of actual powers or control
3. Knowledge alone is empowering.

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Ecology, Context, Culture: Bronfenbrenner (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development.: Assumptions

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1. Development is dynamic and influenced by interaction with environment.
2. Opportunities or risks faced by individuals depend on his makeup as well as the environment
3. The more impoverished the person’s world the less likely they will succeed when impacted by stress

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Ecology, Context, Culture: Bronfenbrenner (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development.: Ecological model

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1. Microsystem: Person’s immediate environment: work, school, home
2. Mesosystem: Interrelations among a person’s major settings: family, school, peer group: a system of Microsystems
3. Exosystem: Major institutions of the society: neighborhood, mass media, government
4. Macrosystem: Institutional patters of the culture: economic, social, educational, political: systems of which micro, meso, and exo systems are the concrete manifestations.

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Ecology, Context, Culture: Kelly’s 4 ecological principles:

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1. Interdependence: each system has multiple related parts and a change in one affects others
2. Cycling of resources: Systems are understood by examining how resources are defined, used, created
3. Adaptation: individuals cope with constraints/demands on environment resources
4. Succession: how settings are created, maintained or changed over time

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Ecology, Context, Culture: Moos’ Social Climate Dimensions

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1. Social Climate Scales measure shared perceptions of a setting among members
a. Relationship: mutual support, involvement, cohesion of members
b. Personal development: does setting foster individual autonomy, growth, skill development
c. System maintenance and change
2. Useful for consultation and program development
3. Can compare “real” and “ideal” settings
4. Statistically related to individual well being
5. Limitation: discrepancies with subgroups and disagreement about setting.

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Ecology, Context, Culture: Seidman: Social Regularities

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1. Routine patterns of social relations between people over time
2. Focus not in individuals, but relationships, roles, and role relationships (e.g., student/teacher)
3. Social regularities must be considered in program development and interpreting why a program worked

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Ecology, Context, Culture: Environmental psychology

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Examines influence of physical characteristics of a setting on behavior. Focus on noise, pollution, crowded housing

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Ecology, Context, Culture: Keys (2004). Culturally anchored research guidelines

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1. Build research infrastructure to support the intellectual and character development of members of marginalized groups
a. Include members of marginalized groups in research
b. Include in brainstorming, research design, and as RAs
2. Create an intellectual context for empirically exploring societal oppression and its impact
a. Create intellectual climate that is supportive of critical analysis
b. Discuss negative impacts of oppression
c. Researchers admitting own biases
3. Develop more egalitarian relationships with participants
a. Create relationships that are supportive and reciprocal
b. Develop rapport
c. Give them something of value
d. Be in setting with them
e. Up front about personal goals
f. Raise awareness about the problem
4. Develop and adapt research methods of data collection
a. Use innovative methods and qualitative data collection
b. Photo voice, documentary, narratives
c. Ideas of what constructs are important to them
5. Include cultural identity as an important content area
a. Identify how cultural identity relates to strengths and protects individuals from negative outcomes
b. Focus of survival, resourcefulness, street smarts
6. Develop research to assess cultural identity as a strengths based approach
a. Understand culture through researchers’ and participants’ perspectives
b. Researcher should understand own identity and how they match participants’ identity
c. Take steps before research (e.g., informal meetings with community leaders and members)

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Ecology, Context, Culture: Trickett (2002). A future for community psychology

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Need to develop research and intervention based on an appreciation of how socio-cultural diversity interacts with diversity in ecological settings which individuals live
1. Studies do not include setting level effects in analysis
a. Insufficient sample sizes for group level analysis
b. Don’t mention role of context
2. Qualitative inquiry for an understanding of culture and context
3. Conceptually multilevel framework
4. Look deeply rather than broadly
5. Collaborative and empowering relationships with citizens

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Diversity: Ethnicity and Gender: Dalton, Elias, and Wandersman: Cultural sensitivity

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1. Establish collaborative partnerships with community of interest
2. Define cultural groups in terms they use themselves
3. Understand the diversity within a cultural group
4. Begin with qualitative and within group designs
5. Anticipate need to modify methods and assumptions

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Diversity: Ethnicity and Gender: Ortiz et al.: Problem with cultural sensitivity

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1. Cultural sensitivity can go so far that it allows for oppressive practices
2. Ex. Machismo: cultural practice harmful but need to value human diversity.

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Diversity: Ethnicity and Gender: Sue: Cultural competence

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1. Qualities promoting genuine understanding and collaboration with members of a culture
2. Knowledge of culture, respect without inferiority/superiority
3. Interpersonal behavior skills
4. Support from within both cultures
5. Awareness of own worldview
6. Ongoing process

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Diversity: Ethnicity and Gender: LaFramboise: Bicultural competence

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1. Knowledge, positive attitude of both cultures
2. Bicultural self efficacy
3. Communication competency
4. Repertoire of social skills in both cultures
5. Groundedness
6. Social support

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Diversity: Ethnicity and Gender: Jagers (2007). Protective factors associated with preadolescent violence

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1. Violence avoidance self-efficacy beliefs protective against violent behavior
2. Communal values protective against violent behavior: The more participants valued interdependence with family, community, and racial group, the less they engaged in violent behaviors

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Diversity: Ethnicity and Gender: Watts (1993). Four Paradigms of diversity

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1. Population specific psychologies
a. Focus on understanding a single population rather than on comparative analysis
b. Explicit worldviews: seeks to articulate a population’s worldview
c. Positive affirmation of distinctiveness
d. Competency (strengths based) orientation
2. Cross cultural psychology
a. Focus on shared human experience and complexities of multicultural research
b. Intergroup dynamics and comparative research
c. Search for distinctive and common cultural attributes
d. Discover how intervention strategies are influenced by culture
3. Sociopolitical psychology
a. Focus on social inequality
b. Formulation of policy implementation
c. Historical and systems approach
4. Intergroup theory
a. Focus on the general processes governing the operation of groups
b. Circumstances that lead to the formation of groups
c. Effect of group membership and intergroup dynamics on cognition and behavior
d. Identity, power, conflict and social comparisons in groups
e. Dynamics of intergroup contact

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Diversity: Ethnicity and Gender: Moritsugu & Sue (1983). Minority status as a stressor

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1. Minority status source of stress
a. Not just ethnic/racial: also age, marital status, occupation, etc.
2. Can be means by which ingroup/outgroup is established
3. Prevention programs should focus on:
a. Community’s redefinition of ingroup and outgroup distinctions might deter hostility and prejudice that causes stress
b. Creation of growth enhancing support systems to buffer stress
c. Structured experiences to foster the development of an individual’s sense of control and coping abilities

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Diversity: Ethnicity and Gender: Allport: 3 levels of rejection individuals can feel if consider themselves part of the outgroup

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1. Verbal rejection 2. Discrimination: unequal treatment of others 3. Physical attack

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Diversity: Gender and Sexual Orientation: Harper & Schneider: Oppression and discrimination among LGBT…A challenge for community psychology

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1. Only 1% of studies on LGBT population, with 55% being on HIV/AIDS: portrays a negative picture of LGBT
2. Must work to empower LGBT by focusing on primary prevention, community development, social activism
3. Community psychologists need to prevent homophobia and heterosexism: the root of problems in this population
a. This will increase resources for the population

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Diversity: Disability: Dowrick & Keys (2001). Community psychology and disability studies.

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1. Disability studies underrepresented in community psychology literature
2. Similarities between community psychology and disability studies: collaboration between the two implicated.
a. Research methods of community psych plus values of disability studies

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Diversity: Disability: Jason et al. (2001). Collaborative ecological community interventions for people with chronic fatigue syndrome

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Research team collaborated with CFS support group to advocate for job, housing, daily assistance, etc. using an ecological approach

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Acculturation

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Changes in individual when in contact with new culture. Identify with cultural group (language, food, interpersonal style, etc.)

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Oppression

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Asymmetrical power relations, unequal access to resources, prejudice/power, powerful group with unearned privilege and target group unearned disadvantage, internalized oppression. Kept in place by media, stereotypes, myths, institutionalized oppression (police)

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Oppression theory (Freire)

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Aim is to change the system by liberating both the oppressor and the oppressed
1. Critical awareness and understanding of oppressed system
2. Involvement and leadership of oppressed group
3. Collective action

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Research methods: Chavis & Wandersman (2002).

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Sense of community has impact on several levels and types of change. Community development should not be limited to residential environments. Research should focus on enhancing sense of community and empowerment: greater challenge than researching its effectiveness

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Research methods: Balcazar et al. (1998). Participatory action research and people with disabilities

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PAR provides a framework in which people with disabilities can take an active role in designing and conducting research.
Four principles of PAR:
1. Active role of people with disabilities play in defining, analyzing and solving identified problems
2. Opportunities for more accurate and authentic analysis of PWDs’ social reality
3. Resulting awareness among PWD about their own resources and strengths
4. Opportunities for improving the quality of life of people with disabilities
Challenges:
1. Need for researchers to relinquish some control over the research process
2. Duration of procedures
3. Difficulty of recruiting participants
4. Unintended consequences of the research process

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Research methods: Wandersman et al. (2004). Empowerment evaluation: principles and action

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EE aims to increase the likelihood that programs will achieve results by increasing the capacity of program stakeholders to plan, implement, and evaluate their own programs.

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Principles of EE: Core values:

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1. Influence the quality of programs
2. The power and responsibility for the evaluation lies with program stakeholders
3. Adheres to the evaluation standards

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Principles of EE: Creating a culture that is ready and interested in improvement

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1. Demystify evaluation
2. Emphasize collaboration with program stakeholders
3. Increase stakeholders’ capacity to conduct evaluation and use results
4. Use results in the spirit of continuous quality improvement

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Principles of EE: Cyclical and developmental process

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1. EE is helpful at any stage of program development
2. EE influences program planning
3. EE institutionalizes self-evaluation among program staff

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Research methods: Ethical issues regarding community interventions

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1. Who are you serving?
2. Nature of consent?
3. Cultural implications of intervention?
4. What are unintended consequences?
5. Empirically validated?
6. Empowering community?
7. Exploiting community?
8. What access to information do clients have?

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Dalton. Principles of community research partnerships

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1. Community research is an exchange of resources
2. Community research is a tool for social action
3. Evaluation of social action is an ethical imperative
4. Community research yields products useful to the community

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Intellectual antecedents:

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1. Against individualistic intervention
2. Against individual pathology
3. Equality
4. Against blaming the victim
5. Strengths based
6. Community psychology as change agent

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Anderson et al: Swampscott conference: Describe the relation of community psychology to clinical psychology, other psychology subdisciplines and other relevant fields of scholarship and action.

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1. Similar to social and I/O because it takes into account broader context, systems
2. Similar to behaviorism and cognitive because it is value free/objective
3. Similar to public health and social work because of focus on prevention and context.
4. Not in line with biopsychology

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Specify the defining perspectives of contemporary community psychology

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1. Ecological framework
2. Prevention and promotion
3. Empowerment
4. Diversity
5. Social support

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Community change and sustainability: Alinsky: 4 approaches to community change

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1. Social action: Identify obstacles to empowerment, remove obstacles
2. Community development: building/strengthening relations among community members identifying problems, solutions, etc.
3. Consciousness raising: Critical awareness of social conditions that may lead to actions for change
4. Policy research and advocacy: Speak out to influence decisions, policy, laws

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Community change and sustainability: Berkowitz: 3 principles of community sustainability

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1. Using all its resources: Skills and experiences of individuals
a. Identify resources
b. Stimulate use of resources
c. People want to do meaningful civic work
2. Social support
a. People must be exposed to each other
b. Talk to each other to better resources
c. Model: seeking, knowing, liking, trusting, acting
3. Meeting deeper needs

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Duffy & Wong. Reasons for social change

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1. Needs of specific groups not being met
4. Declining resources: fewer government programs and changes in funding resources
5. Accountability: participation on government’s behalf
6. Community conflict: 2 or more parties with incompatible goals
7. Dissatisfaction with traditional services: desire for diversity in solutions

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Stress, coping, and social support: Caplan (1973). 3 mediating factors social support can provide

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1. Organize skills/resources
2. Bear the burden
3. Supply materials and emotional support
4. Social support not everything: person must use the system

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Stress, coping, and social support: Kaniasty & Norris (2000). Help seeking comfort and receiving social support

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Person’s comfort in seeking help is a stronger predictor of receiving help than actual need for help. Often individuals most in need of help do not seek help (African Americans less likely to receive if seeking help, less likely to ask for help, but more likely to receive help when they ask compared to Latinos. Latinos comfortable seeking help)

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Bogat et al.: 2 social support models:

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1. Stress buffering: support buffers stress and leads to better adjustment 2. Main effect: Regardless of stress experienced, individual will benefit from a supportive network though increased self esteem and self efficacy.

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Ecological framework for understanding the coping process

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1.Role of resources/protective factors that promote health/well being (Material, social, personal)
2. Role of stressors: Circumstances that represent threatened/actual loss or scarcity of resources
a. Appraisal: construct meaning of stressful experience
3. Social, cultural, situational context
a. Social support: generalized, ongoing, specific
4. Competencies: needed to carry out coping
a. Personal: Self efficacy, cognition, motivation
b. Social: Empathy, spirituality

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Dalton, Elias, and Wandersman: Five questions for Community Research

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1. What phenomenon? 2. From what perspective or theory? 3. At what ecological levels of analysis? 4. Within what cultural context and how to understand that context? 5. Within what relationship with a community?

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Dalton, Elias, and Wandersman: Five questions for Community Research: What phenomenon?

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Depends on our values and interests

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Dalton, Elias, and Wandersman: Five questions for Community Research: From what perspective of theory?

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1. Positivist vs. Contextualist/Constructivist
1. Positivism:
i. Dominant epistemology in psychology
ii. Objective, value free ideology
iii. Random assignment, infer cause/effect relationship
iv. One right answer that can be found
v. Use of multivariate stats to control for confounds
2. Contextualism/Constructivism:
i. Deeper understanding of context rather than emphasis on generalizability
ii. Concerned with personal meaning rather than cause/effect relationship
2. Technological vs. Dialectical
1. Technical: value neutral approach to solving problems
2. Dialectical: researcher states values boldly and takes sides, attends to unheard voices

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Dalton, Elias, and Wandersman: Five questions for Community Research: At what ecological levels of analysis?

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Microsystem, organization, localities, macrosystem

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Dalton, Elias, and Wandersman: Five questions for Community Research: Within what cultural context and how to understand that context?

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1. Focus on understanding heterogeneity of population
2. Do not assume equivalence of measures, concepts, and language
3. Within vs. between approach
4. Guidelines:
1. Create collaborative partnership with community
2. Define cultural groups by language and terms they use themselves
3. Seek to understand within group diversity
4. Consider qualitative methods
5. Expect to modify everything that worked in one cultural community in another

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Dalton, Elias, and Wandersman: Five questions for Community Research: Within what relationship with a community?

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1. Guest/host relationship: each side has gifts to give other
2. Partnership: both have choices and control
3. Community ideas and buy in especially with prevention programs
4. Pre project:
1. Are researchers invited into community?
2. With whom do researchers communicate?
3. Are liaisons representative of community?
4. Do multiple groups in community see research differently?
5. Are community members vulnerable?
5. Research decision
1. What will be studied?
2. How can community perspectives be elicited?
3. How can measures reflect community perspectives?
4. Who does the data belong to?
5. Who interprets the results?
6. Outcomes research
1. What products will be produced?
2. Will researcher give presentation on results to community?
3. Will research help the community and how?
4. Will community members be given credit?
7. Positives of collaboration
1. Increases validity of findings
2. Makes research more useful
8. Drawbacks of collaboration
1. Time consuming
2. Must be open to criticism from citizens

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Five principles of community research partnerships

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1. Stimulated by community needs
2. Exchange of resources
3. Tools for social action
4. Social action is an ethical imperative
5. Yields products useful to community

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Qualitative methods: advantages

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1. Develop understanding of a culture or community
2. Gain cooperation of community
3. Help to attend to unheard voices
4. Useful for describing phenomenon of interest
5. Understand personal experiences of community members and interplay of multiple factors

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Qualitative methods: Disadvantages

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1. Generalizability is limited with small samples
2. Criticized for lack of rigor, standardization
3. Difficult to compare samples

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Qualitative methods: Reliability

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focus on interrater (e.g., coding)

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Qualitative methods: Validity

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use of triangulation and multiple methods

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Types of qualitative approaches, advantages, disadvantages

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1. Participant observation
1. Advantages: gain insider knowledge, increase partnership
2. Disadvantages: decrease generalizability, validity, researcher influences setting
2. Qualitative interviewing
1. Advantages: flexibility, discover new concepts, accuracy, more standardization
2. Disadvantages: Less direct than PO, small sample
3. Focus groups
1. Advantages: access to shared knowledge and language and social interaction
2. Disadvantages: lack of control, pressure to conform
4. Case studies
1. Advantages: in depth, multiple methods
2. Disadvantages: no generalizability, pros/cons of archival data

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Sense of Community: McMillian/Chavis Model of Sense of Community

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A feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members matter to one another and to the group, and a shared faith that members’ needs will be met through their commitment to be together

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Sense of Community: McMillian/Chavis Model: Membership:

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The sense of having invested part of oneself in a community and the belonging to it
1. Boundaries
2. Common symbol system
3. Emotional safety
4. Sense of belonging and identifying with community
5. Personal investment

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Sense of Community: McMillian/Chavis Model: Investment:

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The power that members exercise over the group and the reciprocal power that group dynamics exert on members

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Sense of Community: McMillian/Chavis Model: Integration and fulfillment of needs:

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Shared values among members, as well as the exchange of resources and satisfaction of individual needs among community members

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Sense of Community: McMillian/Chavis Model: Shared emotional connection:

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A spiritual bond based on shared history, this represents definitive element of a true community

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Cottrell: Qualities of a Competent Community

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1. Commitment
6. Self awareness
7. Articulateness
8. Communication
9. Conflict containment
10. Participation in decision making
11. Management of relations with larger society
12. Utilization of resources
13. Socialization of leadership
14. Evaluation

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Coping and Social Support: Appraisal:

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constructing meaning of a stressful situation
1. Primary: estimation of strength/intensity
2. Secondary: estimation of resources/coping options
3. Reappraisal: reframing the stressor

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Coping and Social Support: Types of coping:

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1. Problem focused: address stressor directly, adaptive if stressor is controllable
2. Emotion focused: address emotions that accompany the problem

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Coping and Social Support: Social support:

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being embedded in a network of supportive relationships, related to health and psychological well being.
1. Generalized support: ongoing, not related to specific stressor
2. Specific support: encouragement, information related to specific stressor
1. Optimal matching: different types of support are most effective depending on the stressor