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57 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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System |
Set of interdependent components
2 key aspects - complexity & connection |
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Groups vs. Organizations |
- Both share system characteristics
- Differ in scale/size & formality of structure |
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System Characteristics |
Insight can be gained via systems approach/GST- adapt biological principles to explore key elements found in all systems
- Extremely influential, utilized throughout science |
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System Characteristics Non-summativity (wholeness) |
- Systems more than the sum of their parts Ex. Relationships, chemistry
- The effect of components working in relation to one another differs from the effect of their isolated individual actions (Daniels) |
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System Characteristics Living |
- Systems change/ grow over time
- Tied to their environments- nature/state of the environment impacts the system |
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System Characteristics Hierarchy/Organization |
- Individual elements organized into (sub)systems
- (Sub)systems interact to form larger systems
- Systems operates within a larger environment |
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System Characteristics Openness (permeability) |
Systems involved in "active exchange" with their environments
- Input from environment & output to environmental
- Output
- Throughput- materials that pass through the system are often changed/altered during this process |
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System Characteristics Interdependence |
Functionality of one component/subsytem often relied on the functioning of other components
- System elements are 'inextricably connected'
- In social systems, comm forms the basis of many of these connections |
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System Characteristics Structure |
Elements which shape the system's patterns of behavior/action (communication/information in social systems)
- Formal (Mechanistic)- role/positions, defined pathways (e.g. org chart)
- Informal (Organic)- informal roles, social norms, etc. |
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Groups |
A collection of individuals, linked by sustained interaction, mutual influence and collaboration towards shared goals |
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Three Keys to Understanding Groups |
Exploring group communication requires an understanding of:
- Group elements: fundamental elements common to all groups
- Specific group context: the specific nature and characteristics of a particular group
- Factors affecting group communication |
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Group Examples Assigned group for class project |
- Not voluntarily formed - Equal members - Singular purpose - No special qualifications - Roles collectively assigned |
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Group Examples School Board |
- Competitively formed - Differentiated responsibilities - Electoral based membership - Formal leader - Part of a larger organization structure |
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Group Examples Friends that attend weekly social gathering (e.g. happy hour) |
- Voluntarily formed - Social purpose - No formal role division - Qualifications: social interaction w/ members and availability |
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What makes a group? |
1. Interaction: - Much interaction revolves around group tasks - Other interaction is socio-emotional (interpersonal)
2. Group structure: relatively stable pattern of relationships among members - Roles: parts played by specific members & corresponding behaviors
3. Cohesion: unity or we-ness, 2 aspects 2 aspects: - Feelings of attraction for specific group members & the group itself - The degree to which the group members coordinate their efforts to achieve group goals
4. Social Identity: shared perceptions of group members - Part of the self concept comes from group memberships - Specific self-conceptions are often shared by members of the same group
5. Goals: at some level, groups exist for a reason - Unite in pursuit of common aim - May be overt or implicit Ex. Have fun, solve problems, create products, etc. - Norms: standards describing acceptable behaviors. Often implicit |
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Advantages of Working in Groups |
1. Provide additional resources to put towards the particular goals than an individual working alone cannot match
2. Decisions reached collectively by the group ultimately should be enhanced when compared to individual decision making processes
3. Can satisfy needs of individual group members
4. Increased level of commitment |
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Disadvantages of Working in Groups |
1. Consume more time and resources than an individual effort would
2.Dysfunctional group mechanisms Ex. ineffective or adversarial group structure, or too high of a group 'overhead' - Diffusion of responsibility: individual group members don't perform necessary tasks because they think other members will or should do so.
3. Risky-shift phenomenon: groups may more often tend to make a riskier decision than a single individual would
4. Groupthink |
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Groupthink |
Occurs when a highly cohesive group facing a decision disregards consideration of alternative courses of action in favor of unanimity of opinion |
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Culture |
A complex frame of reference consisting of patterns of traditions, beliefs, values, norms, symbols, and meanings, shared (to varying degrees) by members of a community |
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Three Building Building Blocks of Culture |
- Behavioral influence - Perceptual filter - Expressed products |
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Links between Culture and Communication |
Culture is tied to all components: - Environment - Communicator - Communication: verbal & nonverbal codes
Environment
Communicator <--Communication-->Com.icator
Culture is also learned & shaped through comm |
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Intercultural Communication |
Any communication occurring between members of different cultures where comm is influenced by their differing:
- Cultural perspectives - Culturally influenced - Cultural communication codes
[Defined dialectically (as a matter of degree)] |
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Culture as a Broad Concept |
Many different forms of communities/ cultures:
- National (e.g. US citizens) - Ethnic (e.g. Asian-American) - Generational (e.g. Gen X, teen) - Lifestyle (e.g. sorority, college student) - Interest-based (sports fan, gamer) - Religious (Catholic, Buddhist, Islamic) - Organizational (corporate, Google, UB) - Gender (male, female) |
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Cultural Influences as shifting & overlapping |
- Each of us is influenced by multiple cultural memberships
- There is significant variation in how much influence each membership has in a given situation Ex. organizational culture has the most influence while in the workplace, male gender norms may be most influential when "out w/ the guys"
- There is significant variation in influence among the members of a particular cultural group - Cultural information should be considered as a matter of central tendencies rather than as absolute rules |
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Cultural Perspectives |
Represent the typical baseline values, thought patterns, and behavioral norms of the collective memberships of a cultural group. |
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Cultural Differences: Perspective Individualism vs. Collectivism |
Differ in extent to which they promote individual or collective values/perspective
In individualistic cultures, the focus is on the individual as the social unit. - Members are encourages to be self-sufficient, to develop their own opinions and perspectives, and to understand themselves. - Centered on personal achievements and characteristics
In collectivist cultures, members place high value on the interdependence and social order of such groups and on their own place within them - The welfare of the group is more important that individual success or happiness. - Success is measured through group achievement and one's contributions towards it. |
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Cultural Differences: Perspective Low vs. High context |
Whether norm is direct verbal expression or implicitly expressed meaning
- Low context cultures: cultures where explicit expression of meaning is the norm
- High context cultures: cultures which tend to rely heavily on inference rather than direct expression, and in which meaning is more often indirectly expressed or tacitly assumed based on common knowledge, outlook, and experience |
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Cultural Differences: Perspective Power Distance |
Degree to which members of a society accept an unequal distribution of power
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Cultural Differences: Perspective Achievement vs. Nurturing |
What is emphasized. Sometimes referred to as Masculine vs. feminine
Achievement - or masculine- oriented cultures place the greatest emphasis on attaining goals and the most value on ambition, assertiveness, and competitiveness. - Tend to have relatively clear gender roles - Maintain differing sets of expectations for women & men
Nurturing - or feminine- oriented cultures prioritize interpersonal relationships and social support, and promote the values of collaboration, cooperation, and compassion. - Gender roles tend to be less strictly defined - Cross-gender behavior are not uncommon - Men and women share the same values |
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Cultural Differences: Perspective Uncertainty Avoidance |
Degree to which members of a culture are threatened by and tend to avoid ambiguous/changing situations.
- People from cultures with high level os uncertainty avoidance experience considerable unease when placed in situations that lack clear rules or expectations, or under conditions in which they must quickly adapts or change in response to uncertainty, and often feel threatened in such scenarios
- Members of cultures with low levels of uncertainty avoidance are generally more comfortable with change, better able to quickly adapt when faced with uncertain situations, and more at ease in situations that lack obvious structure. |
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Cultural Differences: Perspective Poly vs. Monochronistic, short vs. long term |
- Monochronistic time orientation: culture views time in a straightforward fashion, as a real and tangible phenomenon, and is thus rigidly structured Ex. Appointments are interpreted literally, an individual's activities are dictated by his or her schedule, time is divvied up according to its expected purpose, and individuals tend to focus on doing one thing at a time.
- Polychronistictime orientation: culture sees time in a more flexible manner and don't attach as much importance to it when structuring the activities of their daily lives.
- Long term perspective: more likely to focus on long term rewards, to exhibit persistence, to order relationships based on status, to demonstrate thrift, and to have a sense of shame.
- Short term perspective: tend to be more concerned with immediate gratification- demonstrating personal stability, a concern with protecting social standing (face), a respect for tradition, and to place an emphasis on the reciprocation of social offerings, such as greetings, gifts, and favors. |
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Cultural Differences: Culturally Influenced Perceptions Generalization & Cultural Stereotypes |
Generalization: inductions or inferences drawn about characters
Stereotypes: persistent generalizations associated with a cultural group - Often associated with devaluing or stigmatizing aspects - Sometimes can seem 'positive' (e.g. model minority myth) |
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Cultural Differences: Culturally Influenced Perceptions Cultural Outlooks |
Implicit superiority - Tendency to view our own cultural perceptions as 'correct' - Natural reaction
Ethnocentrism/ cultural prejudice - Other cultures perspectives/members are seen as inferior or flawed |
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Cultural Differences: Culturally Influenced Perceptions Acculturation |
Process by which individuals acquire the norms, values & other elements of a particular culture
- Often studied w/ respect to immigrating individuals/ groups
- A cyclical process (Triandis) A. Accommodation- immigrant's original cultural values are shifted towards those of the culture they have immigrated to. B. Overshooting- immigrant goes beyond simply acquiring the necessary level of cultural understanding sufficient for day to day functioning, and fervently embraces their newly acquired cultural values C. Ethnic Affirmation: an immigrant returns to their cultural roots by re-emphasizing their original cultural heritage, withdrawing to some degree from their new cultural environment and thereby limiting cultural assimilation |
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Cultural Differences: Communication Codes Different Verbal Codes |
Obvious differences: - different languages - dialects - culturally unique words/phrases
Subtle differences: - difference in using words/languages Ex. self-references - Culturally distinct associations for shared words - taboo topics/words: topics which are not discussed publicly in a particular culture Ex. sexual activity or preference, criticism of certain leaders or authority figures, death, etc. |
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Cultural Differences: Communication Codes Different Nonverbal Codes |
Significant, but not absolute
- Some NV cues seem to be universally expressed/recognized to some degree (Ekman at al. 1969) Ex. Happiness, disgust, sadness, anger, fear
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Cultural Differences: Communication Codes Difference in specific cues |
Emblems: commonly used gestures or other body movement that are used to substitute for words.
Ex. Peace sign (US) = Screw you (UK/Australia) Ok sign (US) = money (Japan) & you're worth nothing (France/Belgium)
- Meaning are often culturally distinct |
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Cultural Differences: Communication Codes Difference in nonverbal norms |
What's considered typical w/ regard to factors such as:
- Proximity - Touch - Eye contact - Dress/appearance |
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Cultural Differences: Communication Codes Cultural Communication Styles |
Culturally defined rules governing comm. Reflects differences in issues such as:
- Topic: what is appropriate for discussion & what is taboo
- Context: appropriateness of time & place
Normative communication behaviors: general and situation-specific; how communication related interactions 'should' take place |
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Tactics for Intercultural Communication Competence Open-mindedness/Cultural relativism |
Be willing to accept another's cultural perspectives as valid to them to the some degree as your own perspectives are to you.
- Does not necessitate agreement/endorsement
- Focusing on what/who is 'right' is rarely productive
- Often must adapt to the situation, compromise, or agree to disagree |
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Tactics for Intercultural Communication Competence Practicing Mindful Communication |
Make an effort to remain alert & involved during comm interactions. Many elements:
- Awareness & evaluation of your own comm behaviors - Close attention to the comm behaviors of the other party - Monitoring your cognitive responses for bias - Avoid assuming similarity - Engaging in active listening & perception checking |
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Tactics for Intercultural Communication Competence Expect & Tolerate uncertainty |
- Some degree of uncertainty is inevitable
- Work to overcome it, done let it escalate to frustration
- Understand that the other party is likely experiencing similar incertainty |
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Tactics for Intercultural Communication Competence Acquire cultural knowledge and skill |
Gain knowledge of a culture & learn how to practically apply it
- Not all info is equal. Some elements (e.g. displaying respect) are more important than others
- Knowledge is useless without a working understanding of how to put it to use
- This endeavor is a long term process |
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Tactics for Intercultural Communication Competence Engage in Person-centered communication |
Keep the other party's perspective & level of knowledge about your culture in mind
- Requires perspective taking
- Avoid language/ symbols that are unlikely to be understood (e.g. idioms)
- Cultural knowledge is best understood as information about central tendencies of the members of a particular culture |
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Tactics for Intercultural Communication Competence Meta-communicate |
Discussion and exploration of the communication process occurring between parties:
- Perspective: yours & theirs
- Priorities: what's important to each of you
- Specific relevant perceptions: how you view each other: actions, messages, situations, etc. |
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Tactics for Intercultural Communication Competence Adopt a Long-term Outlook |
- Many of the previously described tactics require repeated interactions & significant time and commitment to be implemented effectively
- Over time, they generally pay off: Convergence model of communication = the more info is exchanged between individuals, the closer they move towards achieving mutual understanding of one another. |
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Organization |
A social system compromised of various individuals (components) that organize and coordinate their efforts in order to achieve goals (collective and individual) |
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Categories of Organization |
- Refers to businesses and other profit driven entities
- Not all organizations are businesses Ex. non-profit, governmental, community, and interest based organizations
- Virtual organization: an organization that predominantly relies on non-physical interaction or the aspect of a traditional organization that center on virtual exchanges |
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Understanding Organizations/Social Systems |
It's critical to consider the specific nature & context of a particular social system when applying and analyzing principles from organization (and group) communication |
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Organization Communication & 2 Key Foci |
The study of how the context of the organization influences communication processes
2 Key Foci: 1. Communication process that play a role in organization contexts 2. How the specific structure/characteristics of a particular organization (social system) impact communication
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Structure in Organization Systems |
2 Forms - Formal: rule, division, policies, roles - Informal: chemistry, culture, individual attributes
These forms are often intertwined |
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Formal Organization Structure |
Ex. Organization chart - this describes the designated patter of authority and responsibility within an org. Also delineate intended pathways of communication |
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Informal Organization Structure |
Emergent patterns of communication which fall outside of the formal structure
- Often perceptual or socio-emotional in nature- human qualities, social dynamics, climate - Network analysis can be a useful tool for revealing emergent comm patterns |
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Leadership |
How key individuals who can exert significant influence or control over other members due to their role and positional authority, their power to make key decisions, or their ability to directly or indirectly drive the efforts of others |
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Assimilation |
Social & cognitive comm processes surrounding individuals as they enter, move through, and exit an organization
Ex. Cognitive comm processes- orientation sessions, training, mentoring Social comm processes- offering friendly advice, water-cooler conversations, hosting a welcoming gathering |
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Decision Making |
Processes by which decisions are made in an organization |
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Organizational Climate |
The relatively enduring characteristics of an organization that describe the working environment, particularly with respect to communication |
