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174 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is communication
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• The symbolic exchange of verbal and non-verbal messages to come to shared meaning
• Language is symbolic o Source→encoding→channel→decoding→receiver→ FEEDBACK BACK TO SOURCE |
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What is
-encoding -channel -decoding |
•Encoding: how you are going to respond/show communication
•Channel: how to send out the message (text, talk, face book) •Decoding: hear message being sent and interprets it |
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What is a theory?
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• An explanation
• Theory develops from asking questions, observing and constructing answers • All theory is partial • Theory is like a lens. Thus if two people are using different theories to view the same phenomenon they will interpret it differently, highlighting some aspects while ignoring others • Theory is not static but always evolving→ through human experience |
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What is the evaluating theory?
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•Theoretical scope→ if it only covers/explains one small instance
•Appropriateness •Reflectiveness→ ah-ha moment •Validity •Simplicity •Openness→ cooperation with other theories |
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If we were to evaluate whether the fun theory is a good one, we could use the experiment in this clip as evidence of
a. Theoretical scope b. Appropriateness c. Reflectiveness d. Validity |
Validity
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If we were to evaluate whether the fun theory is a good one, we could not use this clip as evidence because it only shows its application to using the stairs therefore, it is lacking
a. Theoretical scope b. Appropriateness c. Reflectiveness d. Validity |
Theoretical Scope
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Which of the following is not true about theories in general?
a. They shape how we understand the phenomenon being observed b. They should be constantly evolving c. They are supported by evidence d. The simpler and clearer they are the better |
They are supported by evidence
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If Bryan tells a joke using sarcasm but Roberto interprets it as offensive which part of the communication model is at work
a. Source/receiver b. Feedback c. Encoding/decoding d. Channel |
Encoding and Decoding
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What are the six levels of language?
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1. Phonetics
2. Phonology 3. Morphology 4. Syntax 5. Semantics 6. Pragmatics |
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What is level one and two phonetics?
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the sound of language
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What are phonetics?
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• Phonetics: the study of human speech, sounds
o Acoustic Phonetics (production) o Auditory Phonetics (reception) |
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What is phonology?
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• Phonology: the study of how sound units are organized and used in natural languages
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What are phonemes?
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• Phonemes: meaningful units of sound
o Be-s-t to create the word BEST o Spoken |
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What is morphology?
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• Morphology: the study of the internal structure of the words
o How the shapes of words are adjusted, and how that affects the interpretation of those utterances. |
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What is a morpheme?
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• Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit in the grammar of language
o Example: Pre-exist-ence o Sound and visual o Morpheme does NOT= syllable or word |
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What are types/parts of morphemes?
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o Root: stem morpheme which can exist alone
• Examples: lid, sink, air, car o Bound: distinct grammatical until but CANNOT occur by itself, always occurs with a root morpheme • Examples: un, pre, ence, ance,….. o Affixes: bound morpheme which occurs before, after, or inside a stem • Prefix (before) • Suffix (after) • Infix (inside) |
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What is level four syntax?
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the structure of parts of speech
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What is syntax?
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• Syntax: the arrangement of parts of speech
o Example: noun phrase, verb phrase, prepositional phrase |
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What is the lexical class?
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• Lexical Class: the arrangement of individual words
o Example: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, particles |
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What is level five semantics?
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the meaning of language
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What are semantics?
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the study of linguistic expressions, especially, absent of pragmatic factors
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What is a referent?
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anything in the referential realm (ex: world) denoted by a word of expression. The objects, events, and ideas referred to by words
o Anything you can touch |
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What is a symbol?
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the word we assign to that referential realm
o A word or picture assigned to a physical thing |
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1. Language analysis concerned about the organization of sound is called which of the following?
a. Pragmatics b. Morphology c. Phonology d. Semantics |
Phonology
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2. Which two levels of language are concerned with structure?
a. Morphology and Syntax b. Syntax and Semantics c. Semantics and Pragmatics d. Phonetics and Phonology |
Morphology and syntax
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What is denotative vs connotative meaning?
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• Denotative meaning: the basic core concept conveyed by a word/term
• Connotative meaning: the feelings and attitudes toward particular words or the referents they represent |
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What is stylistic meaning?
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denotative + connotative meaning + REGISTER
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What is register of formality?
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variation in any of the levels of language (vocabulary, syntax, phonology, morphology, etc) making language more or less formal
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What is affective meaning?
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denotative + connotative + VERY STRONG emotional sentiments and meaning
o All words have denotative and connotative meanings. Only select words have affective meaning |
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What is level six pragmatics?
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• The Functions of Language within Context
• Can the word “crack”=board game? • Pragmatics reminds us that the MEANING of language is not so much IN the symbols but in our agreement of what symbols mean in context. |
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Example of Pragmatics...
o In a relational context: “I am not going to your parents’ house for Christmas” .... implies what? |
• Implies: doghouse, she wants to go to her parents, we don’t know the context in which the sentence is being spoken,
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What is interpretation based on?
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• Interpretation is based the context of which the sentence is spoken and whom is saying it in relation to the receiver.
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what is language ambiguity?
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Language Ambiguity: exploring the various ways what we intend to say is confused
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What are some ambiguity types?
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• Phonetic Ambiguity
• Lexical Ambiguity • Syntactical Ambiguity (Structural) • Semantic Ambiguity (Meaning) • Pragmatic Ambiguity (Meaning and Context) |
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What is phonetic ambiguity?
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• Phonetic Ambiguity: unclear meaning due to the sound of words within a phrase
o Lack of clarity often arises when pronunciation is unclear or there are two or more words which SOUND the same • Example: What is your wait/weight? |
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What is structural ambiguity?
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• Structural Ambiguity: when the meaning is unclear because the categorization of a word/phrase lacks clarity
o Example: A word could be a noun or verb; a sentence could have a dangling modifier or awkward prepositional phrase. |
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What is lexical ambiguity?
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• Lexical: lack of clarity in word
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What is syntactic ambiguity?
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• Syntactic: lack of clarity in phrase
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Example: Stolen painting found by tree .. what ambiguity is present, what are two possible interpretations?
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Two Possible Interpretations:
1. A tree found a stolen painting 2. A person found a stolen painting near a tree • Because… o The agent for the lexical category FOUND lacks clarity. The subject and object of this sentence are unclear because WHO/WHAT did the finding is unclear • Possible Resolution: o Someone found a painting next to a tree |
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What is semantic vagueness?
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• Type 1: Semantic Vagueness: unclear what referent symbol is referring to
o Symbol→ ?? • Semantic Vagueness: unclear referent o Example: I would like to go to that! • What “THAT” refers to is completely unclear • Resolution: Specify Referent |
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What is semantic ambiguity?
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•Semantic Ambiguity: when there are multiple possible connections between the referent and symbol
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What are the two types of semantic ambiguity?
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• Two Types
1. Single symbol→ multiple referents 2. Multiple symbols→ single referent • Single Symbol and Multiple Referents o When a single symbol (WORD) refers to multiple referents (THINGS) |
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Example of semantic ambiguity
• Iraqi head seeks arms |
• Two points of multiple referents
1. The symbol HEAD could refer to president or body part 2. The symbol ARMS could refer to body part or weapons |
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What is are multiple symbols? Examples.
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• Multiple Symbols: single referent when two words actually refer to the same thing, event, idea, et cetera
• Let’s take the children to the amusement park • Let’s take our offspring to the theme park • Let’s take the kids to Silver-wood |
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What is pragmatic ambiguity?
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•Pragmatic ambiguity: which can be either structural or semantic, refers to a lack of clarity of what is meant within a specific context.
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Juvenile Trial to try shooting defendant
A. Structural B. Semantic Vagueness C. Semantic Ambiguity D. Pragmatics |
Structural
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Red Tape holds up new building
A. Structural B. Semantic Vagueness C. Semantic Ambiguity D. Pragmatics |
Semantic Ambiguity
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That was rough wasn’t it?
A. Structural B. Semantic Vagueness C. Semantic Ambiguity D. Pragmatics |
Semantic Vagueness
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That was some rough test wasn’t it? (Exam or football game)
A. Structural B. Semantic Vagueness C. Semantic Ambiguity D. Pragmatics |
Pragmatics
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What is discourse?
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• Discourse: communication is always influencing our behavior and language is never a theory but effects our lives on a daily basis
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Aristotle vs. Plato?
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• Aristotle: empiricist which is one who uses their senses to make theories of the world, making observations to be able to decide what in this world is real. Analyzed what makes a good speech
• Plato: Aristotle’s teacher. Expelled Dialectic |
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What did Plato believe in?
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• Plato believed people could use rhetoric to steer people away from the truth
• Plato’s perspective was that people used antics to deviate from the real word |
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What is dialectic?
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• Dialectic: process of one on one communication
o Search for the truth o Philosophical questions • Asking questions back and forth to determine the truth. • Give and take process in order to have the truth develop or emerge o Come to certainty • Plato believed in Dialect |
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What is rhetoric?
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• Rhetoric: persuasive speech, pretentious words, empty talk with a skill of language, one person speaking to many
o Probability o Demonstration of truth o Practical Questions • Aristotle believed that rhetoric was practical and could be used from positive and negative applications |
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What is forensic type of speech?
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1. Forensic
a. Happens in courtrooms b. Interested in accusations and denials c. Things that have happened in the past |
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What is deliberative type of speech?
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a. Political
b. Matters of Policy c. Things that are going to happen in the future i. If we implicate this policy these are the things that will result from this act |
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What is epideictic type of speech?
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a. Ceremonial
b. Praise or Blame c. Concerned with matters of the present. Funeral and Wedding. |
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What is ethos?
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1. Ethos: who says it
a. Ethics, credibility b. Intelligence: know what your talking about c. Virtue: telling the truth d. Good Will: honest intentions |
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What is logos?
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what you say
a. Logic - Syllogism -Enthymeme |
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What is syllogism?
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b. Syllogism: persuading people of the truth
i. Major premise: all men are mortal ii. Minor premise: Socrates is a man iii. Conclusion: Socrates was a man so he is mortal |
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What is an enthymeme
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c. Enthymeme: The three components of the syllogism minus one component
i. Example: Use only Major premise and Conclusion or so on and so forth |
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What is pathos?
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how you say it
a. Emotions b. Emotions should be conveyed during your speech c. To be used in moderations |
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What are two types of logic?
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deductive and inductive
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what is deductive?
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1. Deductive: top-down. Start broad, such as a general theory or argument, and narrow it down to specific examples and situations
a. Examples: Syllogism and Enthymeme |
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What is inductive?
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2. Inductive: bottom up. Using examples, such as observations, to build up to theories or the creation of an argument
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What are the five cannons?
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invention, arrangement, style, memory, delivery
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What is "invention"?
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1. Invention
a. You must choose which strategy which will be the most effective approach b. Cause and effect approach may be used |
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What is "arrangement"?
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2. Arrangement
a. The organization of your speech that will catch your readers attention b. Repetition and use of threes |
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What is "style"?
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3. Style
a. Refers to how we use language to paint a picture for the audience b. Use of metaphors or similes to help capture the audiences attention |
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What is "memory"?
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4. Memory
a. When we are able to talk about something in a free flowing manner b. Natural |
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What is "delivery"?
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5. Delivery
a. How you say it b. Appearance, emotional conviction, etc; |
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Aristotle’s belief that good speakers know when and how to use emotion in their remarks is represented in his discussion of
a. Logos b. Ethos c. Pathos d. Mythos |
Pathos
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Rhetoric is different from dialectic in that is
a. Is a one on one discussion b. Is a search for truth c. Answers general philosophical questions d. Deals with probability |
Deals with probability
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A typical enthymeme is missing which of the following
a. Conclusion b. Major premise c. Minor premise d. The one already accepted by the audience |
The one already accepted by the audience
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If a scholar was focusing on the skillful use of a metaphor, s/he would be interested in which on of Aristotle’s canons of rhetoric
a. Delivery b. Style c. Memory d. Invention |
Style
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Describe logos and how it compares to martin luther king jr. "i have a dream speech"
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• Logos (Invention, Arrangement)
o Beings with facts, history, later it became more personalized “my people”, “my children”, etc o Lots of repetition, “free at last” o Quoted declaration of independence, Psalms (bible) o Enthymeme: God rewards non-violence, we’ve been nonviolent; therefore, God will reward us. • Minor premise: being non-violent • Conclusion: god will reward us • Assumed: God rewards non-violence |
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Describe pathos and how it compares to martin luther king jr. "i have a dream speech"
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• Pathos (Style, Delivery)
o Lots of repetition o Vocabulary- visual, descriptive “sweltering with oppression”= metaphors o Personalized anecdotes o Vocal tone: elongation of words, most powerful at end of the speech o Identification language “our brothers” → Personal pronouns o Religion language, allusions |
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Describe ethos and how it compares to martin luther king jr. "i have a dream speech"
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• Ethos (Memory)
o Reference to specific protests, positive framing of protests o Togetherness language, slave-owners and slaves, use of parallel language o Reference to Southern States, where he is from o More conversational and free flowing style o Previous knowledge of character |
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Who is Burke?
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Burke- rhetoric and identification as persuasion
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What is Burke and Dramatistic View?
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• Burke believed that “language is a strategic human response to a specific situation” (P. 329)
• Life is not LIKE a drama, it IS a drama • The critic’s job is to “figure out why a writer or speaker selected the words that were ‘choreographed’ into the message” (P. 329) |
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How did Burke view identification and how it relates to persuasion?
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• Burke was less concerned with enthymeme and example than he was with a speaker’s overall ability to identify with an audience.
• Identification is the process of creating common ground that exists between speaker and audience |
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What is substance, according to Burke?
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• Substance: a person’s physical characteristics, talents, occupation, background, personality, beliefs, and values.
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What does Burke view consubstantiality?
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• Consubstantiality: the common ground between speaker and audience. It is the grounds upon which the scene and the audience are defined
• It is the speaker’s ability to “talk sense” to an audience through a common identity |
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How did Burke view identification as consubstantiality?
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• The more overlap there is between the substance of the speaker and the substance of the listener, the greater the identification, and the greater the potential for the speaker’s objectives to be fulfilled
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What sorts of things limit a speaker’s goal of complete consubstantiality?
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o Language differences
o Racial/ethnic/gender identity o Audience: wont pay attention if distracted o Sincerity/ Genuine approach o Age relationship to the audience o Conceived notions/ credibility of the speaker in relation to how you are listening |
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What might be the dangers or pitfalls of attempting identification?
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o Being misconceived/ misunderstood
o Might make you look stupid o Felling of manipulation |
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1. What does Burke call the common ground that exists between speaker and audience
a. Substance b. Dragmatism c. Consubstantiality d. Agency |
Consubstantiality
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2. According to Burke, ____________ is the word to which all other positive words are subservient
a. Identification b. Devil term c. God term d. Redemption |
God Term
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What is Burke's definition of humans?
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• Man (sic) is the symbol-using inventor of the negative separated from his natural condition by instruments of this own making goaded by the spirit of hierarchy and rotten with perfection
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What is symbolic negative of Burkes definition of man?
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Man (sic) is the symbol using inventor of the negative”- Burke
• It is only through human symbolic language that a sense of the negative arises o Example: Nike swoosh represents Nike, sports |
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What is separated by instruments mean in relation to Burke's definition to humans?
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• “Separated from his natural condition by instruments of his own making”- Burke
• Example: “Paradoxes of our Time” smoke to much knowing cancer is there, bigger house smaller families etc |
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What is perfection in relation to Burkes definition to humans?
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• “Goaded by the spirit of hierarchy and rotten with perfection”- Burke
• Guilt and the drive to rid ourselves of, it is the basic plot of all human drama • We have an idea of perfection and have a set standard and ideal we set for ourselves and it creates guilt because we feel like we will never reach this |
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According to Burke what are the two paths to redemption?
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1. Mortification or confession of sins, or
2. Victimage or the creation of an external enemy (scapegoat). These groups typically personify evil |
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What is the dramatistic pentad?
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• Burke’s pentad directs the critic’s attention to five crucial elements of the human drama: act, scene, agent, agency, and purpose
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What is "act"?
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• Act
o What took place in thought/deed o What is being addressed in the speech o Do not confused with the “act of giving the speech” but the “act of what is in the speech. |
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What is "scene"?
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• Scene
o Situation o Does not refer to the environment of where the speech is given o Refers to the situation of why the speech is being given |
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What is "agent"?
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o Subject
o Does not refer to the person giving the speech |
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What is "agency"?
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• Agency
o Means or instrument o Refers to how the person gives the speech |
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What is "purpose"?
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Why?
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What does the dramatistic pentad do??
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• Burke’s pentad directs allows the critic to identify the underlying motive behind a rhetorical act
• Act= Realism • Scene= Determinism • Agent= Idealism • Agency= Pragmatism (practical) • Purpose= Mysticism (referring to a larger aspect) |
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What is pentad #1 in relation to Ted Kennedy's Speech?
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• Act: failure to report the accident
o Why didn’t he report the accident sooner • Scene: the events surrounding Mary Jo’s death o Drinking and Driving, windy, dark outside • Agent: Tom Kennedy • Agency: Methods available to make report o Claimed he didn’t have access to a phone • Purpose: fulfill legal/moral responsibilities |
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What does Ted Kennedy talk about most in pentad #1?
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• Scene: talked a lot about the circumstances surrounding the death of Mary Jo
• We can then infer that scene=determinism • He claims with the circumstances it would have happened to anyone that was driving that car tonight and it was not really his fault |
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What is pentad #2 in relation to Ted Kennedy's Speech?
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Pentad #2
• Act: where or not he should resign • Scene: Reactions to the death • Agent: people of Massachusetts • He is giving the people the option for him to be reelected or stay in Senator position • Agency: election/voting • Purpose: democracy |
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What does Ted Kennedy talk about most in pentad #2?
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Dominant element: AGENT (S)
• Implications are o It saved himself from being impeached, got him reelected o It killed his aspirations to become President • Well liked, powerful, shoe in to being President, but when he gave the people the control people saw him as not taking control over the situation |
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What is a trope?
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• Trope: a rhetorical figure of speech that consists of a play on words, i.e., using a word in a way other than what is considered its literal or normal form
o Example: metaphor, simile, hyperbole, etc |
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What is a figure of speech?
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• Figure of Speech: a rhetorical device that consists of a word or phrase that departs from straightforward, literal language
o Example: Parallelism, Antithesis • Figures of speech often used for emphasis, freshness of expression, or clarity. However, clarity may also suffer from their use. o Example: Advertisement video clip. Mans best friend with dog and tires. |
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What is a simile?
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• Simile: the explicit comparison of two DISsimiliar objects using LIKE or AS
• Examples: Easy as Pie |
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What is a metaphor?
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• Metaphor: the implicit comparison between two DISsimilar objects
• We communicate about one thing in the language or vocabulary of a different thing • Examples: I’m going to COUG it. |
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1. Burke believed that the ultimate motivation of all public speaking is to
a. Persuade people to do what we want them to do b. Purge ourselves of guilt c. Fought for our individual rights as citizens d. A and B |
Purge ourselves of guilt
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2. In his Chappaquiddick speech, Ted Kennedy goes in depth on the driving conditions of that fateful night, reflecting his underlying motive of
a. Realism b. Determinism c. Idealism d. Pragmatism |
Determinism
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What is the cognitive-discourse approach?
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Metaphor--> implicit
Simile--> Explicit Source Discourse: assumed Source term: USED Target discourse: displaced Target Term: replaced |
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Examples (Metaphor): “The job market is warming up”
-Source term, source discourse, target term, target discourse |
• Source Term: Warming up (USED)
• Source Discourse: Temperature (ASSUMED) • Target Term: Improving (REPLACED) • Target Discourse: Growth (DISPLACED) • FORMULA=SOURCE AS TARGET= TEMPERATURE AS GROWTH |
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What is an active metaphor?
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• Active: not part of everyday language and is noticed as a metaphor
o “My love is a deep river of emotion”- Figurative language o “Managing electronic data is like herding cats.” A live simile |
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What is a dead metaphor?
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• Dead: part of everyday language and NOT noticed as metaphorical source terms become target terms
o I am heartbroken o Branch of government o Things are heating up in here |
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What are extended metaphors?
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• Extended Metaphors: using the same source as target formula in continued conversation or other text
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What is a master metaphor?
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• Master Metaphor: when multiple related but distinct examples function within or use the same basic source as target formula
o Love as journey |
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What is an allegory?
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• Allegory: when an entire text (such as a story or film) is metaphorical for another dissimilar situation
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What is a mixed metaphor?
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• Mixed metaphor: a metaphor with two or more SOURCE terms that come from two different SOURCE DISCOURSES
o Example: Its not rocket surgery for Pete’s sake o Example: The top seems clouded in a sea of terminology |
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What is a hyperbole?
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• Hyperbole: a figure of speech wherein the speaker intentionally exaggerates meaning
o Example: There are a million bees out here o Example: I am so mad I could spit bullets |
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What is a meiosis?
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• Meiosis: an exaggeration in reverse
o A figure of speech containing an understatement (making something smaller or lesser in number) for emphasis • Examples: We could have played a little better • Example: Motel 6: we will leave the light on for you |
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What is a litotes (trope)?
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• Litotes: a type of speech in which something is asserted by negating its opposite. Often this is done to express pride modestly or save face
o Example: He is not hard on the eyes. o Example: What you did is no small accomplishment o Example: SNL logo |
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What is a metonymy (trope)?
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• Metonymy: Replaces a literal object with something related to it.
o Example: The law busted in (police) o Example: Pen is mightier than the sword o Example: Energizer bunny |
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What is a synecdoche (trope)?
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• Synecdoche: replaces literal object with a part for the whole, or a whole for the part
o Example part-for-whole: 10,000 longhairs (cats) o Example whole-for-parts: My body aches today (actually you just have a headache) o Example individual for class: I need five more Rebecca’s on this job (not cloning her but you like an attribute in her) o Example: Allstate→ you are in good hands |
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What is the Gerbner Cultivation Theory?
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• Most people who decry violence on television are worried that all too receptive young viewers will imitate aggression the screen
• Gerbner is concerned with a much broader and potentially more harmful emotional effect—that television violence convinces viewers it is indeed “a jungle out there”. • Television Violence → Change in Emotions of people |
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What is Gerbners index of violence?
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• He defined dramatic violence as overt expression of physical force (with or without a weapon, against self or others) compelling action against one’s will, with characters being hurt and/or killed or threatened to be so victimized as part of the plot
o According to this what is not violent? • Verbal/Emotional Abuse • Idle threats • Slapstick humor • Using an objective measure (counting violence acts per type of show). Gerbner and associated monitored incidences of violence on television for over twenty years |
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What is under-represented and over-violated according to Gerbner?
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• Race, sex, age, and class play a major role in the likelihood of being a victim
o African Americans/Hispanics > Whites o Women> Men o Aged and Children > Middle Adults o Blue collar > White collar workers • Particularly striking is that overall these groups are underrepresented in relation to the population |
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1. The oval office issues a statement is an example of
a. Hyperbole b. Litotes c. Metonymy d. Synecdoche |
Metonymy
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2. He was both heartbroken and dead tired is an example of
a. Active metaphor b. Dead metaphor c. Master metaphor d. Mixed metaphor |
Dead Metaphor
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What is heavy viewers vs. light viewers?
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o Heavy viewers: self report of 4+ hours of TV per day= 25% of population
• Watch TV to watch TV o Light Viewers: self report of <2 hours of TV per day also about 25% of population • Watch TV to watch specific show(s) o Midrange Viewers: 2-4 hours per day (NOT PART OF SAMPLE!!) |
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According to Gerbner what is cultivation and media effects?
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• Media effects: the study of how exposure to TV effects people (before vs. after)
• It is NOT media effects because there is no non-TV sample in society, according to Gerbner • Cultivation Differential: the difference between light and heavy viewers in amount of TV exposure |
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Chances of involvement with violence. Heavy vs light
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• Chances of involvement with violence
o Light report 1 in 100 o Heavy report 1 in 10 o Reality 1 in 10,000 |
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Fear of walking alone at night. Heavy vs. light
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• Fear of walking alone at night
o Correlation with amount of exposure for bother M and F o Heavy overestimate by 10 times o Cars are actually more dangerous |
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Perceived activity of police. Heavy vs light
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• Perceived activity of Police
o Heavy estimate 5% of society in law enforcement o Light report a more realistic 1% |
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General mistrust of people
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• General mistrust of People
o Heavy are more distrustful than light |
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What is mainstreaming?
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• Television homogenizes its audience so that those with heavy viewing habits share the same orientation, perspectives, and meanings with each other
• Glorified middle class o Heavy report being middle class (regardless of reality) o Light more accurately report their work status • Political affiliation still reflects sociological distinctions (race, class, etc, differences) but: o Heavy report being moderates yet research indicates they tend toward conservative ideals, including: • For police protection, stronger national defense • Against abortion, interracial marriage, open-housing legislation, and affirmative action |
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What is resonance?
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• Resonance: the congruence of the television world and real-life circumstances may “resonate” and lead to markedly amplified cultivation patterns
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How does is the media's cultivation work like a garden?
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• Finally with the right climate, and over time, the seeds grow to plants
• Third the ground is watered |
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What is the original mantra according to McCombs and Shaw?
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• The media do not tell us what to think, they tell us what to think about
• Does that mean that media professionals are necessarily deliberate or intentional in their agenda? |
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What is agenda-setting defined by McCombs and Shaw?
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• No not necessarily!
• Masss media have the ability to trasfer the salience of items of their news agenda to the public agenda • We judge as important what the media judges as important |
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1. Gerbner’s findings demonstrate that heavy viewers are likely to:
a. Think that violent crime is more likely to happen to them than is actually the case b. Believe that police officers draw their weapons more often than is the case c. Have an increased distrust of other people d. All the above are correct |
All the above:
a. Think that violent crime is more likely to happen to them than is actually the case b. Believe that police officers draw their weapons more often than is the case c. Have an increased distrust of other people |
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1. Gerbner believes that when people are constantly exposed to the same images on TV, they develop a common outlook that he calls:
a. Narrowcasting b. Mainstreaming c. Resonance d. None of the above |
Mainstreaming
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Building Theory I: Nixon vs. Humphrey Race (1968)
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• Nixon Vs. Humphrey Race (1968)
o Results: They demonstrated a high correlation of news agenda and voters’ agenda • Problem with results is that there is no causation • News agenda→ Voters’ Agenda or • Voters’ agenda→ News agenda? • Correlation does not=causality |
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Building Theory II: Carter vs. Ford (1976)
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• Carter vs. Ford (1976)
o Survey of 3 research sites; Lebanon, NH; Indianapolis, IN; and Evanston, IL. o Simultaneously monitored 3 major networks and local newspapers o Results: found a correlation time-lag showed public agenda lagged news agenda by 4-6 weeks o Problem: both news and public agendas MAY be influenced (just at different rates of time) by some other variable |
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Building Theory III
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• Experiment involving previously aired newscasts for 4 days straight, with 3 groups of New Haven residents who watched only this news
• Each group saw a different version and filled out a questionnaire regarding their concerns o Results: The newscasts had a significant impact on the viewers’ concerns regarding the issues. |
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Who are the real agenda setters?
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1. Politicians set agendas and disseminate it through the media channels
2. The media-elite are ‘gate-keepers’ of political dialogue. However, they do NOT represent a cross section of the American public |
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What is framing?
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• Framing: the central organizing idea for news content, which suggests what the issue is through the use of selection, emphasis, exclusion, and elaboration
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Describe the example of framing in regards to the Iraqi Invasion picture.
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o Example: Framing of the Iraqi Invasion—picture of the Sadam Hussein’s statue being taken down—implies his fall from power, we are doing the right thing, helping people of Iraq
• Government framed the photo to have it meet the agenda, framing of the picture made it look like a large mob and crowd was there but from a different perspective there was not very many people there |
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What is the paradox of framing?
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• First, framing is inevitable
• It is impossible to present a story without framing!!! |
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Environment as an example... Salient Frames
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• Global Warming (human caused)
• Global Climate Change (natural process) |
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What is the paradox of framing: The power of frames?
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• Secondly, the power of frames is that they set agendas absent of, or in direct contradiction to, reality
• Agenda setting is “Not just what to think about, but HOW to think about it.” o Example: The pecent of Texans who ranked crime as most important issue rose from 2% in 1992 to 37% in 1994 • Actual occurrence of crime actually declined during that time |
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What is Hall's Cultural Studies?
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• Hall critiques “mainstream” communication research that is narrowly focused on discovering cause-and-effect relationships
• Many students of communication agree that words and other signs contain no intrinsic meaning. Hall asks where people get their meanings • Hall’s answer is that they learn what signs mean through discourse, particularly Media Discourse. |
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What is ideological criticism?
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• Ideology= “Concepts and premises which provide the frameworks through which we represent, interpret, understand and ‘make sense’ of some aspect of social existence.”
• Powerful sectors of society act as if there is no ideology in their interests. Mass media function to maintain the dominance of those already in positions of power • The objective of Critical-Cultural Studies is to “unmask” these hidden ideologies and to empower marginalized sectors of society—groups whose power is undermined by current “common sense” |
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What is hegemony and hegemonic encoding?
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• Hegemony, or that which is considered the “common sense” of society, involves two related processes
• Hegemonic Encoding: the unseen bias and one- sidedness involved in meaning making where powerful interests decide how things and issues are defined |
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1. Stuart Hall’s Cultural Studies is interested in
a. Examining where people get their meanings from b. Examining how media tells us how to think c. Testing how media causes certain effects in viewers d. Examining how media cultivates certain attitudes in viewers |
Examining where people get their meanings from
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2. If a newspaper article on healthcare reports on the perspectives of politicians and doctors, but completely ignores the experience of those without healthcare, which element would the critic conducting an analysis of media discourse focus on?
a. Genre-orientation b. Textual prominence c. Omission d. Agency |
Omission
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What is Modality?
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• Modality: the tone, certitude, or authority of a statement
• It is typically expressed through specific words/phrases such as: may, might, could, will, without a doubt • Through these “hedging” words the certainty of a statement is lessoned, creating a plausible deniability in the statement • Ex: you OUGHT to do quite well in this class • One potential reason President Bush was often in political trouble is because he used modality |
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What is Presupposition?
-Logical and Pragmatic |
• Presupposition: that which is taken for granted and unquestioned in sentences
• Two Types 1. Logical Presuppositions: presuppose the EXISTENCE of things 2. Pragmatic Presuppositions: presuppose a connection between two presupposed facts. All pragmatic presuppositions contain logical presuppositions |
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Logical Presupposition Example...
“The dog has stopped sleeping in its kennel” |
presupposes that the dog did at one time actually sleep in its kennel
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Pragmatic Presupposition Example...
"John got sick and he spent two weeks at a spa.” |
• This not only Logically Presupposes that Spa-place where people get better, but Pragmatically Presupposes that John went to the spa BECAUSE he fell ill
• Imagine the change: John spend two weeks at a spa and got sick |
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What is the spiral of silence?
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• Spiral of Silence refers to the “the increasing pressure people feel to conceal their views when they think they are in the minority.” In other words it is the MUTING of the minority.
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What is the "orientation" of spiral of silence?
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• Recognizes the power of public opinion and regards it as a tangible force that keeps people in line
• For morally controversial topics, Noelle-Newmann defines public opinion as “attitudes one can express without running the danger of isolating oneself” |
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What does "humans as quasi- statisticians" refer too?
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• People are sensitive to shifts in public opinion
• When asked about public opinion, people rarely reply, “How should I know?” • Tremendous energy is utilized in sensing public opinion, but it is a smaller price to pay than being in the minority |
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What does fear of isolation refer too?
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• Fear of Isolation is the main focus speeding the spiral along
o In short we love to CONFORM • We are all impacted by expressions of being in the minority (frowns, laughter, etc) but especially banishment from the group |
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What does conformity as socio-psychological refer too?
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• Socio-Psychological Research indicates that people will conform even if all evidence, including their senses, suggest that the majority is wrong, and they will yield to perceived group pressure
o A ___________ o B __________________ o C ______ o X ___________ • According to Noelle-Neumann, if left alone, individuals would correctly choose line A. If, however, in a group situation where members unanimously state an incorrect answer, the individual will feel great anxiety and likely CONFORM |
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What does Noelle-Neumann refer to as the power of the mass media?
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• Noelle-Neumann goes beyond Agenda-Setting to suggest that media “provides a sanctioned view of what everyone else is thinking”
• Media is omnipresent and filled with repetition of images • Media thus crystallizes public opinion. Media access therefore becomes crucial to shaping public opinion. o Example: President Bush’s Approval Rating |
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What does it mean when it is time to speak/keep silent?
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• Silence does NOT mean changing opinion, but remaining silent about that different opinion
• “Individuals who...notice that their own personal opinion is spreading and is taken by others, will voice this opinion self-confidently in public. On the other hand, individuals who notice that their opinions are losing ground, will be inclined to adopt a more reserved attitude” • Example: The SPIRAL of silence |
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What are factors that accelerate silence?
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• Human ability to gauge Public Opinion
• Individuals’ Fear of Isolation • Hesitancy to express Minority Views |
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Those that are never silenced?
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• The Hard core and Avant-Garde are holdouts who remain defiant
• “Hard Core people are those who “have been overpowered and relegated to completely defensive position in public” • Already beaten down, they have nothing to loose • Avant-Garde are “intellectuals, artists, and reformers who form the vanguard of new ideas” |
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1. Noelle-Neumann refers to those who have been overpowered and beaten down in the public as fools
a. Hardcore nonconformist b. Avant-gardes c. None of the above |
Hardcore nonconformists
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2. _____________ Is the driving force behind the spiral of silence
a. Fear of isolation b. Available rewards c. Public opinion d. Future forecasts |
Fear of isolation
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What are avant-gardes?
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• Avant-garde “intellectuals, artists, and reformers who form and vanguard of new ideas”
• Expressing an unpopular opinion at one time o Example: Dixie Chicks, Kanye West |
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What is phonetic ambiguity?
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Phonetic Ambiguity: unclear meaning due to the sound(s): pronunciation is unclear or two or more words SOUND the same
• Example: What is your wait/weight |
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What is structural ambiguity?
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Structural Ambiguity: when the meaning is unclear because a word in the sentence could be a noun or verb, or because the organization of the sentence is awkward
• Example: Stolen painting found by tree (look back in notes for interpretations) |
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What are presuppositions?
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Presuppositions
• Logical presuppositions assume that something EXISTS • Pragmatic presuppositions not only assume that something exists but assume a relationship between the two (or more) things. |
