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183 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Gender Identity
One's subjective feelings of maleness or femaleness
Gender role identity/sex typing
The degree to which a person identifies with societal definitions of masculinity or femininity
3 stereotypes of women
Housewife, bussinesswoman, playboy bunny
Stereotypes of men
Status, toughness and anti femininity
4 components of gender sterotyping
Personality, role behaviors, occupations and physical appearance
How high someone scores on masculinity is unrelated to how high he or she scores on
femininity
Conclusions about gender stereotyping
People cannot be viewed simply as collections of consistent traits, because situations are also important, and males and females specifically cannot be viewed as having unique traits that are opposite each other, and whatever attributes are thought of as distinctly masculine or feminine are also possessed by the opposite sex
Kernel of truth theory
Gender stereotypes exist because of real truth and evidence
Social-role theory
stereotypes arise from the different social roles typically held by men and women. When men and women hold similar jobs, they are thought of as holding similar traits
Social-stratification theory
gender roles are actually status roles, with men being dominant
Perceptual filters
we tend to remember seeing stereotypes better than we remember seeing things that don't line up with stereotypes
Impression-management
we present ourselves in a way we think is acceptable
Women's tendencies in conversation
1.) Ask more questions - to facilitate the flow of conversation
2.) Positive reactions - utterances that demand or encourage responses
3.) Positive minimal responses - mm hmm
4.) Silent protest - after they have been interrupted
5.) use more pronouns - you/we
Men's tendencies in converstations
1.) Interrupt more
2.) Challenge or dispute their partner's utterances
3.) Ignore comments of other speaker or have a delayed minimal response
4.) Use more mechanisms for controlling the topic of conversation - topic development and new topic introduction
5.) Direct declaration of facts or opinions
Dominance theory
Men's dominance in society is reflected in their dominance in conversation
Normative theory
Women are "supposed" to be passive and emotion and nurturing, so they are in conversations
A possible explanation for conversational differences
men and women come from different sociolinguistic subcultures - miscommunication common
Minimal Responses
For women it means she's listening and continue. For men it means, I agree

Confusions!!
Young girls use language to
to create and maintain relationships, criticize other girls, and to interpret accurately the speech of other girls
Young boys use language to
assert one's dominance, to attract and maintain an audience, and to assert oneself when other speakers have the floor
elaboration is
a key to dynamic of women's talk
3 widespread features of men's talk
Storytelling, arguing and verbal posturing
Women see a question as.., whereas, men see it as
Maintenance, where men see questions as a question
Women view conversational aggression as... whereas, men see it as
personal and negative.

Men see it as organization of the converstation
Women like to talk things out and discuss them, whereas men like to just
give advice
Men interrupt and take the floor when the conversation topic is
masculine. Reverse is true for females
Interaction effects seem to be greater than...
gender effects
Gender as culture theory
men and women have difference language because they are raised differently
Self-categorization theory
A person's self-identity
Accessibility
perceiver readiness, is an individual's contributions to categorization
Gender-schema theory
individuals possess gender schema and can encode and organize information according to culture's definition of maless/femalesness
Gender-linked language schemata
When men CAN use female language because they predict that "women use more flowery words"
It's just interesting that tentative language might be thought of as bad, because
it's found in women, and they are of a lower class
Intercultural/sociodevelopmental point of view
essential difference between men and women, and from these differences language flows - biological/cultural or sociodevelopmental
Self-categorization theory
mechanism that underpins all collective behavior is a subjective shift in self-definition from self as individual to self as a member of a group
depersonalization process
the shift from identity as self from individual to group member. fit process. Comparative fit is cognition, normative fit is cultural
Perceiver readiness
there are individual differences in the propensity to self-categorize
Comparative fit
process of cognitively amplifying between category differences and within category similarities
normative fit
people are more likely to perceive comparative information that is consistent with nroms
Prototype
a typical, representation of a category
women tend to use tentative language to
influence men
Men were more influenced by women who used more tentative language under
low gender salience
With tentative language, the more men do it, the
more women trust them. The more women do it, the less men trust them in high salience
Culture shapes
gender identity
Cognitive development theory
children play active roles in developing their gender identities - internal desire to be competent
Social learning theory
children learn to be masculine and feminine by conservations, experimentations and responses from others
Gender contancy
the understanding that he or she is a male of female that this will not change - internal motivation to learn how to be competent in the sex and gender assigned to them
Symbolic interaction
By communication we learn who we are and what that means in the culture. We learn from others how to see ourselves. How people tell us we are creates a self-image that we become more and more
Standpoint theory
Offers insight into how a person's location within a culture shapes his or her life. Focuses on how gender, race and class influence our positions in society and the kinds of experiences those positions foster. Minorities may have more insight into how a society works - less biased. Different social groups develop particular skills, attitudes, ways of thinking and understanding as a result of their standpoint
Symbolic interactionism
BY communication we learn who we are and what that means in our culture. Parents may tell us we are good in math or cooking, so we make ourselves good at math or cooking. Creates a self-image
Male generic language
purports to include both women and men, yet it refers specifically only to men. Businessman, chairman, mailman
Spotlighting
the practice of highlight a person's sex.
Women defined more by...
their relationship to men
Speech community
a group of people that shares norms about communication. Exists when people share understandings about goals of communication, strategies for enacting those goals
Essentialization
the tendency to reduce something or someone to certain characteristics we assume are essential to its nature
Hermaphrodites/intersex
internal and external organs do not match up
Communication
dynamic, systemic process in which two levels of meaning are created and reflected in human interaction with symbols. Dynamic - Continually changes, evolves and moves on. Systemic - communication occurs in particular situations or systems that influence what and how we communicate and what meanings we attach to the messages
Content level of meaning
literal meaning. and implies what response is appropriate. Carl tells ted to fix dinner. Ted fixes dinner
relationship meaning
defines the relationship between communicators by indicating each person's identity and their relationship to each other
babies can
categorize gender
language -
Conversation -
Communication -
verbalized
Interaction
Macro level
Research does not support
the dominance explanation
- Cognitive self-categorization
- People think of themselves differently depending on the situation
- Ranges from interpersonal to intergroup
-o In other words, how people categorize (think or view themselves) depends on the context/situation that one is in; people can think in terms of being a group member or a unique individual
o Social Identity salience
- When people categorize their self in terms of being a member of a group, their social identity is salient (activated or operating)
- Accessibility of a social category and fit..
determine what social identity will be salient
 Gender Salience Language  outcome
Context is also important
Tag question
De-intensifying a direct statement - Sophia is there, isn't she?
Hedges
Displaying uncertainty, usually mod. verb. Sort of feel like pizza, I guess
Hesitations
Display uncertainty or lack of confidence. I uh, had a good time
Disclaimers
removes responsibility from someone - I may be wrong but...
Polite Forms
overly demonstrate courtesy and respect to reduce the certainty of a statement
tag question
Uncertainty - expresses uncertainty or requests confirmation - she will meet us at midnight, wont she?

Solidarity - Facilitates contribution and encourages joining in - Still studying hard for your final, are you?

Politeness - softens a direct and negatively toned statement - you lied to me, didn't you?
Which tag questions do women and men use more?
Women - solidarity and politeness

Men - uncertainty
Functions of interuptions
Clarification - ask about something

Agreement - show support or agreement

Disagreement - challenges

Tangentilization - show awareness of statement, but make light of it by talking bout something else that is slightly related

Subject change - talk about something completely unrelated
Men interupt to ...

women interrupt to ...
display dominance

display cooperation

Interruptions affected by formality of conversation and roles and topic (expertise?) Whoever is majority in group may interrupt minorities
Women reference
emotions more than men
Men reference
Directives (society needs to...)
References to quantity
Interaction goals
a desired endstate that someone tries to achieve wen talking with someone else . Women pursue communal goals. men pursue: confrontation and jovial goals
Women are good at...
comforting and giving emotional support. Manipulate another's positive feelings and compromise more
Men are good at
getting permission from parents. Use more direct/blunt language and coercive influence
Brian difference men and women
hypothalumus
Functions of nonverbal communication -- Supplementary
Can coexist, or contradict the verbal information
o HI! I’m really excited to meet you!! – you’re body language should be positive
o Functions of nonverbal communication -- regulatory
“about to talk” lean in, raising your hand, regulates flow and structure of conversation
- Relational function

• Responsiveness
o E.g. – feedback you get back from someone, and how it impacts a relationship
- Relational function

- • Liking
o Affected by the amount that you like or dislike someone
o Pat on the back, hug
 Relational function

• Power and control
o Using nonverbal behavior to exert dominance
 Handshake
- Types of nonverbal communication
o Artifacts
 Flashy watch, sports car, R&B groups have a lot
o Proxemic - nonverbal communication
 Where do you situate yourself in relation to others
o Haptics
 Touch
• Pat on the back, hug
o Kinesics
 Body language
• How you move your hands, facial expression
o Paralanguage
 Intonation, vocal – but not the words themselves
o Physical appearance
How you present yourself
5 components of emotion
o Impetus
Triggers an emotion – movie, song
o Appraisal
Judgment of the stimulus
o Physiological changes
Heart rate, blood pressure, pupil dilation
o Action
Talking about the movie, crying
o Regulation
Modifying the emotion
Decide you should NOT be crying
6 primary emotions
o Anger, happy, surprise, fear, sad, disgust
When you smile... you
might feel better
- Gender differences in nonverbal communication
o Artifacts
 Clothing, jewelry, toys
o Proxemics
 Not much research
 Same sex friends studies
 Girls more likely to sit close to each other
o Haptics
 Female friends touch each other more, sitting closer on a couch
o Kinesics
 Women tend to smile more than men
o Paralanguage
 Men have deeper tone of voice than women
 Intonation changes might be more common in women
o Physical appearance
 Hair length, make-up, cosmetic
- Gender differences in emotion
o Depression
 Women have a slightly higher propensity to become depressed
Gender Differences in stress
 Women more likely stressed over family and relationships
 Men more likely stressed over work
Gender differences in Jealousy
 Men are more jealous over sexual infidelity
 Women are more jealous over emotional attachment
Gender differences in fear
 It depends on what the fear is
• Women more fearful of being betrayed, relationship problems
• Men fearful of physical aggression
Remember:
His wife and him are big I Love Lucy fans – they both have seen all episodes. His wife is a redhead and might have identified with characters
- Gender Differences in emotion and nonverbal communication
o Crying
 Boys cry more than girls before the age of 6 or 8 – then they realize difference in gender roles (school age)
 Then girls cry more frequently
 No gender difference between death
 These are developmental changes, or situation influences
 Women can cry more than men when they are angered
Gender differences in withdrawal
Men are more likely to leave a conflict, or to stonewall, but... • Outside of intimate relationships
o Men more likely to approach conflict, and not back down
o Women more likely to remove themselves
Agression
Men are more aggressive than women
Gender based rules are enforced by...
Society, culture and media
Domestic violence
more women are injured or killed by men than men are by women... pregnancy increases these odds
o Stalking
 78% of stalking victims are women, whereas 22% are men
 Women have a 60% likelihood to be stalked, while men have a 30%
- Social cognition
social thought processes, how people think of other people, gender involved
o Self-fulfilling prophesy
 Occurs when an initially erroneous social belief about someone leads to its own fulfillment
• E.g. – thinking a person you will meet won’t like you; person ends up not liking you
- Three steps for a self-fulfilling prophesy to occur
o Step 1:
 Perceivers develops erroneous expectations
o Step 2
 Perceivers’ expectations influence how they treat targets
o Step 3
 Targets react to this treatment with behavior that confirms the expectation
Examples of self-fulling prophesy
 Men’s erroneous beliefs about female target (step 1) affect men’s behaviors toward women (step 2), which causes women to behave in ways towards men that confirm men’s expectations (step 3)

For women: Women’s job interview with a sexist man (target) dressed more feminine and gave more traditional responses
- Consequences of Gender-based Social Cognition
o Endorsement of gender stereotype and women’s mathematical ability
o When women feel as though they are going by their personal


o Gender bias in the evaluations of others
 Evaluations of research articles biases by gender
 Evaluations of art paintings biased by gender
 Evaluation of expert witness testimony biased by gender
Conclusion of gender-based social cognition
Gender impacts people's perceptions of others when gender is all that you have to use.. when other information is available it is also used
Cognitive approach to gender stereotypes
Stereotypes are adaptive, make human reasoning possible, organize information and facilitate inferences
Social role approach on stereotypes
Gender differences because workers should be assertive, and homemakers should be passive - expectations elicit confirmatory and role-consistent behavior . Roles create behavioral differences between gender
Women-women relationships
More expressive, close talk, less based on physical acticity
Men-men relationship
instrumental - less close talk
Mix-sexed relationships
Men feel more emotional closeness - women feel like emotional closeness, more people go to females for support
Sexual orientation in differences in relationships
Gay men are more likely to have their family relationship and their gay community relationships separate
Intimate relationships differences
Assertive men and passive women - women control sexual behavior - and there are differences in sexual expectations - men are supposed to be providers
Self-disclosure
talk about certain topics to increase emotional closeness -- women do this more
Touching
hand holding, kissing, embracing...

relational commitment and private touching is positively correlated, but then tappers off/levels at time goes by

Relational stage and amount of public touching starts low, rises then falls again to a higher than original level
Evolutionary Perspective
Men can afford to be less selective because they have disposable sperm

Because of this, women have more diverse way to reject men , and are hit on more

Women are more flirtatious because they have to attract a lot of mates to choose from

Men tend to prove that they can provide

Men are never certain that their children are their's - potential for jealously
Evolution and physical attraction -- analysis
 Perceptions of beauty are hardwired
 How we move is the first thing people notice
 Athletic people have good movement – good genes
 Women’s faces more attractive when ovulating
Task-orientation definition of family
Depends on what tasks are being performed - particularly focused on pro-creating and raising children

Problems - some families can't/don't reproduce, or are done
Transational Process definition of family
Doesn't worry about blood types or other legal ties

Determined by attachment or bond

problems - real blood relatives or legal ties don't count if the bond isn't there
household chores
In gender women do more chores than men but there is a recent societal change

also depends on the types of chores - masculine and feminine
Communication in marriage -

Distressed vs. undistressed couples
Distressed couples are more likely to be negative and less likely to self-disclose

Nonverbal communication varies - negative vs. positive (smiles/frowns)

In distressed couples, negative behavior is more likely to be reciprocated
Traditional type of marriage
Conventional - division of labor is tradition - more defined gender roles - good stability - strong acceptance and understanding - interdependence - they need one - expression and self-disclosure common
Independence marriage
Unconventional and has autonomy - enjoy doing things on their own - power struggle - 'i want to do this, she wants to do that, who stays with the kids?'

Expressiveness is common -which helps solves problems
Separates - marriage
Enjoy the relationship, but they don't have a strong need to focus on gender roles - somewhat conventional - independence

Withdrawal - seen as more a partnership than a marriage
During pregnancy....
Togetherness increases

wife's sense of husband's care is elevated

Husband's desire for generatively increases
After child birth....
Labor division at home and work changes - number of tasks done at home increases from 5 to 36

Amount of leisure time decreases

There could be a decrease in the level of satisfaction depending on expectations
Parent - child communication
Each affect each other <-->

Motherhood - nurturing

Fatherhood - play and activity

Conclusion - gender impacts relationships - personal, intimate and family
Gender also affects...
Expectations for relationships, communication in relationships, activities in relationships

However, gender is not the primary influence in relationships -- communication matters, personality matters
Bonus question about republicans and democrats
Republicans are more satisfied

more likely to wear something sexy and more likely to have faked an orgasm -- but this all reflects gender more
Task orientation behaviors
Ask for and offer opinions, suggestions, information
Social-orientation behaviors
Express friendliness, dramatizing, joking, storytelling
Task-orientated gender differences
Moderate differences - contextual factors affects it -- including the intimacy/closeness of group members, length of interaction, expertise demands of task
Leadership determined by, and different types
determined by

Amount of talking time, number of tasks initiated

types
task-based
social-based
gender leaders
Leadership emergence
Overall men emerge more often as leaders, but the difference is modest

Status, personality, masculinity and femininity, and number of group meetings has an affect (the more you meet the more you go off personality, and the less you go off of stereotypes)
A gender-based glass ceiling must (4 things)
o Not be explained by other job-relevant characteristics of the employee
 Must control for other variables besides gender, such as race, experience, education, etc.
o Be greater at higher levels of an outcome than at lower levels of an outcome
 The income discrepancy must increase as men and women advance in their careers
o Be a difference in the chances of advancements into high levels, not merely the proportions currently at those higher levels
 Compared to men, promotions for women must be less and less likely to obtain as look across levels
o Be a differences that increases over the course of a career
 Compared to a man, a particular woman’s chances for advancement must decrease as her career progresses
- Breaking the Glass Ceiling effect
o Women are more likely to occupy top management ranks in organizations that: 4 reasons
 Have more lower level management positions filled by women
 Have higher management turnover
 Have lower average management salary levels
 Place greater emphasis on development and promotion of employees
Females doctors
More # of screenings and counseling services, more information given, and the length of consultation increases

Focus on building partnership

Emphasizes aspects of health (emotion, family and lifestyle)
Men doctors
More direct
Female patients to any sex doctor
Interpersonal care and affection - length of office visits increases

Females are talked-down more to
More likely to receive more information
More interaction
More emotion and empathy
More often referred to psychiatrist than cardiologist
More emotional engagement
Female patients to female doctor
talk more, more psychosocial information revealed, more questioned asked, more involvement in decision making
Explanation for gender and health communication
o Differences in personality tendencies play a role in health communication contexts
 But do men and women always express these differences in other contests?
o Expectations of male/female patients
 Patients’ expectations  patients behavior and communication  Doctors’ behavior and communication
o And vice versa
 Doctors’ communication styles elicit certain communication styles in patients
Men's gender role
o Independent strong, risky, invulnerable, unemotional, unexpressive, etc.
Women's gender role
 Dependent, social, rapport, emotional, open, expressive, etc.
• May be more likely to go in to see a doctor
o Gender role differences --> health differences
 Independence and seeking medical care (early disease detection)
 Misperceptions of invulnerability and seeking medical care (e.g. early treatment)
 Openness and levels of stress (talking about things can help)
Type A personality and health
 Type A personally
• Focuses on time urgency
• Competitive
• Propensity for assertiveness and anger
• Headstrong
• Etc
 Type A women  negative effect on health -- It can be more problematic for women than men because of the incompatibility with their gender
 Type A men  negative effect on health
- Gender and condom use
 Decision to use condom is usually done by the male
 Consistent condom use (of teens) depends on:
• Conflicting avoidance of parents – the more they liked to avoid conflict, the less likely were to use condoms
• Assertiveness
• Length of relationship
• Self-control – more likely to use the condom
• Desire not to be pregnant (for women)
• Having control over partner (for women)
• Partner’s commitment (for women)
- Equalization hypothesis
o Lack of social cues
o Visual cues are missing – which are important in finding out what groups people belong to
o Knowledge of group memberships disappear
o Creates an equal playing field
o Comments judge on quality of content not by the person saying them
o Decision making is fair and not based on gender

Supported but unsupported at the same time
- Is the equalization hypothesis valid?
Depends on the degree in which the person believes the other person, and the anoymity - probably tends to not occur in real-world situations
 Self-categorization theory
• Anonymity  salience and depersonalization
• Avatar selection
o Depending on topic, how women choose avatars fluctuates
 If it’s a feminine topic, women chose feminine avatar
 When it’s masculine topic, women chose neutral or masculine avatar
 Men are less likely to chose a feminine avatar regardless of topic
o Revealing gender in online courses
 Women did not want to reveal their gender/sometimes they even tried to ask like they were a man
 Found that their gender being anonymous helped
Computer gendered voice
 People preferred the male because it was friendlier and gave better praise.
Computer gendered voice - answering questions
• Questions about sports or fashion
• Computer indicates answer is correct or incorrect
o Computer may be right or wrong
• Counted how many times people changed their answers due to what the computer said
• When the topic matched the computer’s voice – people were more likely to change their answers
 Gender is a factor in computerized communication, whether it be people communication via computers or people communication with computers
 Why is gender important in these computer-mediated context?
• Highly accessible category
- Why parents put tv in their room?
o So the adult can watch it is most common
o Keeps the child occupied
o Helps child fall asleep
o Reward
o Stops fights between siblings
- Children often use media
actively and independently
- Children use screen media the most, more than...
being read to
differences in video game use and reading.
Girls read more, boys play video games more
Why is sex on tv important?
 Can have effects on people, alter their understanding of reality
 There has been an increase in the number of shows that have sexual content over the last 10 years
 It is now at 70% of all shows, and 77% of prime time shows
 There are 6.7 sex-related scenes per hour in the top teen shows
• It’s only 5.0 scenes per hour in all programs
 Percent of shows in 2005 with sexual content
• Movies – highest
• Sitcoms
• Drama series
• Soap operas
• News magazines
• Talk shows
• Reality shows – lowest
 There has been an increase in the average age of the participants having sex on TV
 Portrayals of men and women in media
• Men are breadwinners who don’t help at home versus women as faithful, family-focuses, doting housewives
• Men as heroes versus women as in need of a hero
• Women as sex-objects
• Men as powerful and controlling aggressors
• Women as cold-hearted, mean-spirited revenge-seekers
• Men and women as having certain physiques
 Portrayals are unrealistic, over-generalized, and unbalanced
 The more media you see with sexual content,
the less content you are with your own sex life – negative correlation
• The more media you watch with sexual content
the more favorable you are towards premarital sex

• More likely to engage in premarital sex as well
• Number of premarital partners goes up
 Attitudes about premarital sex – the more sexual media the
the more favorable they feel about premarital sex
 Acceptance of rape/myths/stereotypes increases with
sexual content
 Perceptions of sex norms
heighten with increased media with sexual content

 Sexual behavior perceptions are changed as well
After men viewed sexual film they
displayed more dominance, anxiety touching
After men viewed sexually degrading film
they interrupted women more, and tended to a touch a partner less

Conclusions - viewing sexually explicit films effects men's behavior towards women
- Media effects on gender identity
o Expectations for gender-based work/chores at home
o Stereotypical notions of femininity and masculinity
o Life goal (e.g. – educations and occupational)
o Importance of beauty
o Idealistic/unrealistic expectations about marriage
 Expectations about happiness, time together, openness, love, trust, etc.
 Fantasy rumination – daydream
 Marital intentions
Results of tv viewing on expectations about marriage
 Overall TV Viewing
• Not related these idealistic views of marriage
 Genre specific of relationship-focused shows
• Had an effect on the idealizing
• Especially for women
• Watching relationship-focused television positively related to unrealistic expectations about marriage, particularly for women
• Casual  NO
Conversion Model
o Stereotype change is fact
 Happens instantly and dramatically
 Single piece of data or stimuli causes change
 Change occurs in an all-or-none fashion
 Change occurs relatively suddenly

Highly salient instances of inconsistent information change a stereotype

Inconsistent information that is concentrated in a few individuals leads to more stereotype change
o Bookkeeping model
 Different pieces of evidence change the stereotype
 Mental scorecard on (in)consistent behaviors
 Inconsistent evidence overpowers/outnumbers consistent evidence
 Strength of stereotypes matters

Large numbers of inconsistent information change a stereotype

The greater the amount of inconsistent information, the more a stereotype changes
o Subtyping model
 Depends on the strength of the stereotype, but focuses more on the resistance to stereotype change
 “The one person is just an exception to the rule”
 Model focuses on resisting stereotype change, more than stereotype change
 Inconsistent evidence placed in distinct subtype of atypical group members
 Fence off inconsistent from consistent
 Multiple instance of subtyping can change stereotypes

Inconsistent information that is dispersed across many individuals leads to more stereotype change

best supported
o Exemplar/prototype model
 Can be real or hypothetical
 You’ve only met one ethnic person, so you base your stereotypes on that on particular person
 Representative examples affect stereotypes
 Adding different exemplars can cause change
 Using different exemplars can cause change
Subtyping is the most-supported steotypical model.. why
 People subtype
 People pay attention to atypical group members
 Disconfirming/inconsistent information has greatest impact on existing stereotypes when dispersed across several group members rather than just a few members
People are successful at suppressing stereotypes but...
o But, when you release that suppression the stereotype rebounds, and comes on even stronger
o Suppression of a though increases accessibility of that thought
o Rebound effect of stereotypes

• In the second essay, the group that had to suppress their stereotypes used more stereotypical material in their essay when they were allowed than the group that never suppressed