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81 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Groupthink's Major Premise
When group members share a common fate, they tend toward conformity
Key Concepts of Groupthink (3)
1. Cohesiveness - glue that binds group members
2. Unified Decision Making - ideas accepted uncritically
3. Complexity - Group decision making is complex
Antecedent Conditions of Groupthink (7)
1. Cohesive group - high satisfaction
2. Insulated group - unaffected by outside factors
3. Directive/Emergent Leader
4. Lack of structure for decision-making process
5. Pressure/stress
6. No good solution/alternatives
7. Homogeneity (group similarity)
Symptoms of Groupthink related to Overestimation of Group
1. Illusion of Invulnerability
2. Belief in Inherent Morality
Symptoms of Groupthink related to Closed-mindedness
3. Stereotype Outgroups - underscore that adversaries are too weak/too stupid
4. Collective Rationlizations - people try to explain bad decisions / ignore warnings about their decisions
Symptoms of Groupthink related to Pressures toward Conformity (4)
5. Self-censorship
6. Illusion of Unanimity - we think everyone is in agreement
7. Self-appointed Mindguards - Keep out outside information/external influence
8. Pressure on Dissenters
Prevention of Groupthink (8)
1. Appoint a Devil's Advocate
2. Invite fresh ideas & criticism
3. Leader withholds opinion up front
4. Set up independent groups & subgroups
5. Discuss with outside sources
6. Gather anonymous feedback
7. Embrace whistle-blowing
8. Value good-decision making over cohesiveness
Strengths & Weaknesses of Groupthink
A. Strengths:
Practical Utility: Heuristic
B. Weaknesses:
Narrow Scope
Internal + External Validity
Major Premise of Organizational Culture
Organization members create, use and interpret symbols in order to make sense of organizational reality.
Concept of Organizational Culture
Organizational Culture is the set of shared beliefs & values that control org. member's interactions with each other and with those outside the org.
- There can be subcultures within the same organization.
Culture Manifested Through Symbols (3)
1. Physical Symbols - Buildings, art, attire

2. Verbal Symbols - Jargon, jokes, nicknames
- Metaphors - Likening to an existing concept
- Narratives/Stories - Interpretive telling of a series of events

3. Behavioral Symbols - Ceremonies, traditions, rituals (repeated formalized pattern of actions)
Culture Manifested Through Performance (5)
1. Ritual Performance - Regular/recurring performances (personal, task, social, organizational, much like behavioral symbols)
2. Passion Performance - Organizational Stories shared with others (verbal symbols)
3. Social Performance - Acts of etiquette.
4. Political Performance - Acts of power/control/influence
5. Enculturation Performance - Acts of orientating/teaching
Thick Description
Immersing one's self in a certain culture and interpreting the layers of meaning
Major Premise of Agenda-Setting Theory
Media has ability to lead public to assign salience from news agenda to public agenda.
Criticisms of Organizational Culture (2)
A. Logical Consistency -Use of individuals or organization as unit of analysis?

B. Scope - Expansive boundaries to point of potential vagueness
- Viewing organizational life as unique, rather than making generalizations across organizations
Strengths of Organizational Culture
A. Heuristic - Widely studied
B. Utility - Used by consultants; new employee assimilation
Basic Agenda Setting Process
Media Agenda >> Public Agenda
Definition of Media Agenda
- Homogenization of news into a set of topics addressed by all members of the news media
- The salience of issues/events in the media
Definition of Public Agenda
- The salience of issues/events in the mind of public
What's the difference between events and issues?
A. Events - Discrete happenings in space and time
B. Issues - Series of related events (i.e. economy, elections)
What are Media Gatekeepers?
The news industries who choose which stories to publish and how to frame them.
What are Real World Indicators?
News Articles, for example, covering Vietnam or crime. These have some level of correlation with actual world events (number of troops or number of crimes)
Definition of Policy Agenda
- Salient issues and events for politicians
- Decisions and actions of policy makers
When is personal experience relied on as opposed to media? (4)
When:
1. Media credibility is low
2. Source of information is interpersonal as opposed to mass
3. Conflicting evidence
4. Conflicting news reports
People's needs for Orientation increases when:
Their uncertainty and personal relevance is high.
What is Framing?
- The Selection of theme for a news story.
- The "spin"
- Different gatekeepers have different framing, i.e. liberals vs conservatives
Major Premise of Social Exchange Theory
We are in relationships with others for our own well-being.
Major Assumptions of Social Exchange Theory (5)
A. People seek rewards and avoid punishments
B. People are rational human beings.
C. Standards of costs/rewards vary over time/people
D. Relationships are interdependent.
E. Relationships are processes that develop over time.
Criteria for Evaluating Relationships (2)
A. Comparison Level (CL) - Measure of Satisfaction
B. Comparison Level for Alternatives - Measure of Stability
According to Social Exchange Theory, what are the 2 Exchange Patterns?
A. Behavioral Sequences - Series of actions designed to achieve a goal

B. 3 Exchange Structures
1. Direct Exchange - Cost/Reward Reciprocation
2. Generalized Exchange - Cost/Reward within social network
3. Productive Exchange - Simultaneous synergistic Effect
Real Applications of Social Exchange
A. Conflict Management
B. Relationship Development & Management
C. Persuasion
Strengths & Weaknesses of Social Exchange
A. Strengths: Parsimony, Internal Consistency
B. Weaknesses - Falsifiability, Scope
Major Premise of Uncertainty Reduction Theory
People seek information to explain and predict others' behavior.
3 Phases of Initial Interaction
A. Entry - follows explicit rules & norms
B. Personal - spontaneous & personal interaction, includes self-disclosure/reciprocation
C. Exit - people make decisions about whether to continue/leave relationship
Motivations for Info Seeking (3)
A. Reward/Incentive Value
B. Anticipation of Future Interaction
C. Deviance
Two Types of Uncertainty
A. Cognitive - Beliefs & Attitudes
B. Behavioral - Predictability of Actions
Strategies for Reducing Uncertainty (3)
A. Passive - overhearing, watching
B. Active - asking someone else
C. Interactive - actuall talking to them
7 Core Axioms of URT + 2 Additional Axioms
High Verbal Comm, Low U
High Non-verbals, Low U
High U, High Info-seeking
High U, Low Intimate Topics
HIgh U, High Reciprocity
High Similarities, Low U
High U, Low Liking

8. In established relationships, if interactions w/ partners' networks increase, uncertainty decreases.
9. HIgh U, Low Comm Satisfaction
Strengths and Weaknesses of URT
A. Strength: Heurism
B. Weakness: Internal Consistency
Major Premise of Relational Theory (Pragmatics)
Interpersonal relationships are systems of interaction
Five Axioms of Pragmatics
1. One cannot NOT communicate (intentionality)
2. Punctuation defines relationship (nagging wife vs retracting husband)
3. Digital + Analogic Comm (digital - well defined syntax, analogic - ambiguous syntax)
4. Content + Relational Comm (communication reflects relationship)
5. Symmetrical + Complementary Comm
What is a symmetrical exchange?
One-up/One-up
One-down/One-down
What is a complementary exchange?
One-up/One-down
One-down/One-up
What's the utility of Relational Theory?
- Family dynamics, dysfunctions
- Conflict Management
Strengths and Weaknesses of Relational theory
A. Strengths: Heuristic, Falsifiability, Scope
B. Weakness - Lacks Parsimony
Major Premise of Social Penetration Theory
Reciprocal self-disclosure leads to intimacy.
What is the Nature of self-disclosure according to Social Pen.?
A. Self disclosure has two dimensions (breadth and depth)
B. Self-disclosure depends on perceived rewards/costs
What four factors affect self-disclosure?
A. Source
B. Receiver
C. Relationship (i.e. Doctor/Patient)
D. Context (i.e. on a train)
According to Social Pen, what're the four stages of Relational Development?
1. Orientation
2. Exploratory Affective Exchange
3. Affective Exchange
4.Stable Exchange
What is the Orientation stage of Relational Development?
- Reveal small parts of selves
- Occurs at public level
- Superficial comm., stuff you would say to anyone
What is the Exploratory Affective stage of Relational Development?
- Aspects of personality begin to emerge
- Some private aspects become public
- Spontaneous and nonverbal comm. increase
- Few relationships pass this stage (Stage 2)
What is the Affective Exchange Stage of Relational Development?
- Comfortable comm. that uses personal idioms
- Both positive/negative exchanges
- Close friends and intimate partners
What is the Stable Exchange stage of Relational Development?
- Complete openness and spontaneity
- Highly intimate and synchronized
- Able to predict other's behavior
- Fewer misinterpretations
- Few relationships ever reach this stage
Strengths & Weaknesses of Social Pen. Theory?
A. Strengths: Heuristic, Parsimonious, Internally Consistent, Falsifiable, Utility
B. Weaknesses: External Validity - Stages not always clear defined, lasting, or meaningful.
What is the Major Premise of Functional Group Perspective?
Groups can make better decisions by using a set Comm. procedure.
What are the four functions of Effective Group Decision Making?
A. Analyze the problem
B. Establish criteria for a solution (goals)
C. Create alternative solutions
D. Evaluate solutions with regard to Criteria (consequences)
(E. Choose solution that best fits criteria)
What are the three roles of communication according to Functional Group Perspective?
A. Promotive - Moves task forward.
B. Disruptive - Delays task.
C. Counteractive - Redirects toward task.
Strengths & Weaknesses of Fn. Group Persp?
A. Strengths: Consistent, Practical Utility, Parsimony
B. Weaknesses: Scope
What are the major premises of Social Cognitive Theory (aka. Social/Observational Learning Theory?)
[Bandura]
A. We remember behaviors enacted by others
B. We enact these behaviors when we perceive them to be rewarding
What's the context/focus of Social Learning Theory?
A. Roots in Psychology - Human Behavior

B. Adopted by Comm: Mass Media Effects on Individual
1. Violence - are kids likely to imitate?
2. Prosocial - good for society behaviors (Sesame St.)
3. Advertising - profitable?

C. Differs from Cultivation Theory:
1. Single viewing
2. Behavioral Focus
According to Social Learning Theory, what are the 3 Effects of Media Exposure?
A. Acquisition - Learning (i.e. how to hold a gun)
B. Modeling - Imitating (copying someone, i.e. Beevis & Butthead)
C. DIsinhibitory - Acting in the same vein (i.e. seeing someone kill someone, and in turn going out and shoving someone)
What are the four steps in Modeling Process?
Step 1: Attention & Comprehension - (i.e. Oscar from Sesame St.) Increases with portrayals that are:
1. Simple,
2. Distinctive,
3. Prevalant,
4. Useful,
5. Positive

Step 2: Retention
Step 3: Ability to Perform
Step 4: Motivation to Perform - Perceived Need or Perceived Reward
What are the five factors that increase the Likelihood of Modeling, according to research?
(i.e. Power Rangers, Research on Eating Disorders)
A. Identifcation with Model
B. Realistic Model
C. Familiar Context
D. No Competing Models
E. Motivational State
S's and W's of Social Learning Theory?
1. Consistency, Falsifiability, Useful
2. Limited Predictive Power (Rewards, identifications, needs)

and Limited Explanatory Power (Individual action only, not shared behavior/groups/culture)
What are the major premises of Cultivation Theory?
A. Media's predominant messages shape perceptions of the world

B. High consumers influenced more than low consumers

(3 B's - Television Portrayals
1. Blur (Traditional distinctions are blurred)
2. Blend ("Reality" is blended into a cultural mainstream)
3. Bend (The mainstream reality benefits the elite))
What is the Cultivation Differential?
- The percentage of difference in response between light and heavy television viewers
- More heavy beliefs indicate:
1. Chance of Violence
2. Fear of Walking Alone at Night
3. Perceived Police Activity
4. Mean World Syndrome (Mistrust of others)
What are Cultural Indicators?
Television shows and media
What is Mainstreaming?
- When heavy viewers accept a "TV reality" as true reality
What is Resonance?
When viewer's life experiences coincidence with television depictions of reality
What are the two Cognitive Effects of Cultivation Theory?
A. First Order Effects - Learning facts from media (statistics)
B. Second Order Effects - Learning values and assumptions (i.e. are people basically honest? should police use force?)
C. No behavioral effects
What is the Mean World Index/Syndrome?
1. Most people are looking out for themselves
2. You can't be too careful around others
3. Most people would take advantage of you if they got the chance
What are the Major Premises of Spiral of Silence Theory?
A. People judge whether opinions are popular or unpopular
B. People adjust their expressions to these perceptions
What are the four key assumptions of S of S?
A. Individuals rely on media and others for information
B. Dual climate of opinion - Direct (experienced) and Media Reported
C. Individuals fear isolation & seek relationship
D. Those who deviate ("HardCore" individuals) pay the price of isolation.
How does the Spiral of Silence work?
A. Media publicizes opinions
1. Shape impressions of which are important/dominant
2. Shape impressions of which opinions can be uttered without being socially rejected

B. Dominant opinion holders express their opinions

C. Others remain quiet
1. Fear rejection from voicing opposition
2. Their opinions remain unknown.
What are the key concepts of Spiral of Silence? (3)
A. The Media provides words/terms/phrases that capture popular ideas

B. Three characteristics:
1. Ubiquity - media is everywhere
2. Cumulativeness - Media repeats itself
3. Consonance - media carries same messages

C. Behavioral Effects
What were some ways people tested S of S?
A. Primary Researcher = Noelle-Neumann (line tests)
B. Fear of Isolation - Ashe & Milgram Studies (line length tests)
- pluralistic ignorance
C. Silence - Train/Bus studies
D. Less support in U.S. than in Germany
What is the primary Critique of S of S?
The question of the veracity of which the theory was derived from an individual identified with Nazism, and whether her personal biases have influenced it.
What is the quasi-statistical sense?
People have their own estimations of strengths of opposing sides on public issues.
- This "organ" is on high alert during periods of instability.
What is pluralistic ignorance?
- Mistaken observation of how most people feel
What are the dual climates of opinion?
- The difference between the population's perception of a public issue and the way the media report on the issue
(Direct vs Media Report)
What is the hard core group?
- Groups at the end of the spiral willing to speak out at any cost
(i.e. abortion protestors, antiwar coalitions, animal rights, environmenntal advocates)