Comm 301: Final Exam

Front 1

Direct effects era

Back 1

a. Examinations of political propaganda
b. Media perceived to be influential
i. Example: “Hypodermic needle” (Goes into the body and impacts you in an meaningful way) and “Magic bullet” (Hurts at first then impacts you for then on) theories
ii. Media has big powerful effects
c. Research focused on content, not effects

Front 2

Limited effects era

Back 2

a. Why are media not powerful?
i. Example: “Selective exposure” (People are select themselves in the media that they are exposed to) and “Selective retention” theories
b. Research: Surveys and content analyses (Where you analyze what the message is)

Front 3

Conditional effects era

Back 3

i. Looking for more subtle effects
ii. Looking for conditions that makes effects likely
iii. Research: Broadened range of methods

Front 4

Social learning theory:
1. Model
2. Conditions
3. Categorization

Back 4

a. Model: Attention to performance of behavior -> Learning of behavior -> Performance of behavior
i. Example: (Watch Sesame Street and see kinds cooperating -> Learn to cooperate with other kids -> You cooperate with other kids)
b. Conditions:
i. Identification: The person who is doing the behavior, you relate to them in some way
ii. Consequences
iii. Situational motivations
c. Categorization: Non-cumulative (Once is enough); Long term

Front 5

Phases of media effects research

Back 5

1. Direct effects era
2. Limited effects era
3. Conditional effects era

Front 6

Theories of media effects

Back 6

1. Social learning theory
2. Cultivation theory
3. Arousal theory
4. Agenda setting
5. Framing

Front 7

Cultivation theory:
1. Model
2. Conditions
3. Categorization

Back 7

a. Model: Exposure to TV demographics (Exposed to groups of people who share various characteristics) -> Demographics beliefs -> Normative attitudes
i. Example: You watch a lot of TV and see young people engaged in sexual behavior) -> You start to believe that most young people engage in such behavior -> You start to feel bad about yourself for not yet having engaged in sexual behavior
b. Conditions
i. Resonance (The extent to which TV reality is consist with your own experience in the real world)
ii. Uniformity of portrayals (Everything you see if uniform and consist)
iii. Uncritical viewing (They don’t challenge the demographic representation that they see)
c. Categorization: Cumulative; Long term

Front 8

Arousal theory:
1. Model
2. Conditions
3. Categorization

Back 8

a. Model: Exposure to arousing content -> Physiological arousal -> Exaggeration of feelings
i. Example: You go and see a violent movie with some friends -> As you are watching it your heart rate increases -> After the movie, a friend makes a joke at your expense and you get unusually mad
b. Conditions
i. Resting levels of arousal
ii. External circumstances
c. Categorization: Non- cumulative; Short term

Front 9

Agenda setting:
1. Model
2. Conditions
3. Categorization

Back 9

a. Model: Exposure to media agenda -> Issues perceptions -> Personal agenda
i. Example: You read the Daily Wildcat which talks about tuition increases -> You perceive the issue of tuition to be important relative to other issues -> Tuition becomes an important issue to you
b. Conditions
i. Interest (More interest -> more agenda setting)
ii. Obtrusiveness
c. Categorization: Non-cumulative; long term

Front 10

Framing:
1. Model
2. Conditions
3. Categorization

Back 10

a. Model: Exposure to framing of an issue -> Specific definitions or aspects of the issue become salient in your mind -> Your attitudes about the issue change
i. Example: You read a news story about abortion that uses the term “baby” instead of “fetus” -> Babies come to mind when you think about abortion -> Your support for abortion decreases
b. Conditions:
i. Consistency of frames
ii. Centrality of values
c. Categorization: Non-cumulative; long term

Front 11

Effects of violent media content

Back 11

1. Violent content causes aggressiveness
2. The effect of violent content it too small to be meaningful: Large enough so we can observe it
3. Society was violent before mass media developed
4. Media violence just reflect the real world
5. Media violence is just a response to audience demand

Front 12

Violent content causes aggressiveness

Back 12

True:
a. Social learning: Imitation of behavior
b. Arousal
c. Desensitization

Front 13

The effect of violent content it too small to be meaningful: Large enough so we can observe it

Back 13

False

Front 14

Society was violent before mass media developed

Back 14

True:
a. (Environment) X ->
b. Media Y (Aggressiveness)
c. (Innate Traits) X ->

Front 15

Media violence just reflect the real world

Back 15

False:
a. Frequency: How much violence do we have
b. Type: The kind of violent acts shown
c. Characters
d. Consequences

Front 16

Media violence is just a response to audience demand

Back 16

False

Front 17

Effects of sexual media content

Back 17

A. Not all sexual content has the same effect
B. Can sexual content affect sexual behavior? Yes
C. Can degrading sexual content affect attitudes toward women? Yes

Front 18

Not all sexual content has the same effect

Back 18

a. Typical sexual content: People in power positions in engaging in some kind of sexual activity (People power and mutual consent)
b. Sexual risk messages: They indicate the risks of engaging in sexual behaviors (16 & Pregnant, Teen Mom)
c. Degrading sexual content: Degrading to one of the parties involved

Front 19

Can sexual content affect sexual behavior? Yes

Back 19

a. Example: Collins et. Al (2004)
i. Design: Over-time survey of a national sample of teen’s ages 12 – 17. Measured TV exposure, sexual behaviors and various control variables.
ii. Findings
1. Exposure predicted earlier sexual behaviors
2. Relationship remained even with various controls
a. Parental monitoring/expectations
b. Grades and behavior in school
c. Age of friend
d. Mental health
e. Religion
3. Exposure to sexual risk messages decrease sexual behaviors but only among African Americans

Front 20

Can degrading sexual content affect attitudes toward women? Yes

Back 20

a. Example: Zillan & Bryant (1984)
i. Design: Exposed people to varying amounts of sexual explicit content (Pornography) over a six-week period. On the 7th week everyone watched an explicit film.
ii. Findings
1. Immediately after the film those who had more prior exposure experience less arousal
2. Two weeks later, those with high exposure:
a. Overestimated prevalence and variety of sex acts that exist out in the real world
b. Were more callous (Don’t think as highly of) toward women
c. Showed less support for women’s causes
d. Recommended reduced punishments in a mock rape trial

Front 21

Race in news media

Back 21

A. Race of perpetrators and victims
B. Likely effects

Front 22

Race of perpetrators and victims

Back 22

a. RQ: Are racial portrayals of criminals and victims consistent with reality?
b. Method: Content analysis
c. Findings
i. Perpetrators
1. Blacks were overrepresented while Whites and Latinos were underrepresented
ii. Victims
1. Black were slightly underrepresented, Latinos were mostly underrepresented, and Whites were massively overrepresented

Front 23

Likely effects

Back 23

a. Cultivation: Predicts change
b. Reinforcement: Predicts staying the same
i. Example
1. RQ: Is attention to crime news related to the belief that Black people are violent?
2. Method: Survey (L.A. area)
3. Findings
a. More attention to news correlated to the belief that Black people are violent
b. Controls for third factors (E.g. race, education, racism, media exposure, neighborhood diversity, crime rate)

Front 24

Gender in entertainment media

Back 24

A. Content patterns
B. Why do media portray these patterns?
C. Effects

Front 25

Gender in entertainment media: Effects

Back 25

a. Reinforcement
b. Dissatisfaction with your body; preoccupation with weight/dieting
c. Empowerment

Front 26

Gender in entertainment media: Content patterns

Back 26

a. Numbers: Men > women
b. Social roles
c. Ideal types
d. Objectification: When you make a human solely an object of sexual desire

Front 27

Gender in entertainment media: Why do media portray these patterns?

Back 27

a. Meeting audience expectations
b. Consciously shaping values?

Front 28

Ethics and philosophy

Back 28

A. Ethic: A branch of philosophy concerned with what is good or bad, right or wrong
B. Ethics is not…
a. Just about legality
b. Always black and white
C. Key ethical perspectives
a. Confucius: The Golden Rule
b. Aristotle: The Golden Mean (The Average)
c. Kant: The Categorical Imperative (
d. Mill: The Greatest Good (Look at all the people that might be affected and the decision is made based on how it effects the good of the people)
e. Rawls: The Veil Of Ignorance (As you make an ethical decision you have to imagine and think about who you could be)

Front 29

Ethical duties of media producers

Back 29

A. Duty to self
B. Duty to audience
C. Duty to employer
D. Duty to profession
E. Duty to commitments
F. Duty to society

Front 30

Functions of sports in mass communication

Back 30

A. Transmitting information
B. Providing entertainment
C. Enforcing social norms
D. Mobilizing people
E. Building community
F. Status conferral
G. Providing an economy
H. Time displacement

Front 31

Media portrayals of athletes

Back 31

A. Race
B. Gender

Front 32

Media portrayals of athletes: Race

Back 32

a. Quantity: Equal representation
b. Quality
i. On-field: Natural ability vs. hard work
ii. Off-field: Positive vs. negative

Front 33

Media portrayals of athletes: Gender

Back 33

a. Quantity: Women underrepresented
b. Quality

Front 34

Predicting effects

Back 34

Arousal
Social learning
Cultivation

Front 35

Arousal

Back 35

a. Exposure to Content -> Physiological arousal -> Exaggeration of feelings

Front 36

Social learning

Back 36

a. Attention to behavior -> Learning of behavior -> Performance of behavior

Front 37

Cultivation

Back 37

a. Exposure to TV demographics -> Demographic beliefs -> Normative beliefs

Front 38

The future of mass communication

Back 38

A. What can we certainly expect?
B. What can we probably expect?
C. What can we not easily predict?

Front 39

The future of mass communication: What we can certainly expect?

Back 39

a. Specialization/ personalization
b. Decentralization
c. Mobility
d. Instantaneous dissemination

Front 40

The future of mass communication: What can we probably expect?

Back 40

a. Convergence
b. Ads and content hard to separate
c. Fewer content “packages”
d. Enhanced visual and aural experience

Front 41

The future of mass communication: What can we not easily expect?

Back 41

a. Entirely paperless?
b. Free access or paid access
c. Ad subsidy or pay-per-use?

Front 42

The future of news media

Back 42

A. What can we certainly expect?
B. What can we probably expect?
C. What can we not easily predict?

Front 43

The future of news media: What can we certainly expect?

Back 43

a. Decline of print and growth online
b. Specialization
i. Partisan
ii. Topical
iii. Regional
c. Growth of news aggregation
d. Growth of public relations content

Front 44

The future of news media: What can we probably expect?

Back 44

a. Decentralization
b. Scarcity of resources (Lack of money)
c. Merger of news and pop culture
d. Increased level of misinformation

Front 45

The future of news media: What can we nto easily predict?

Back 45

a. Regulation of ownership is headed
b. Who pays for good journalism
c. News organizations’ views of their role in society
d. The consequences of specialized news

Front 46

General conclusions/reminders

Back 46

A. Mass communication is becoming less mass
B. Mass communication is becoming more egalitarian
C. Change is mass communication is driven y technology
D. When challenged, media adapt and survive
E. Traditional divisions are disappearing
F. Media inevitably follow a commercial pattern
G. Media ownership seeks consolidation
H. Media inevitably face some kid of regulation
I. Media effects are real and meaningful
J. You have an important role in mass communication

Front 47

A. Mass Vs. Specialized Audiences

Back 47

a. The mass audience
b. Specialized (Segmented) audiences
c. How specialized audiences matter

Front 48

The mass audience

Back 48

i. Large
ii. Heterogeneous
iii. Anonymous

Front 49

Specialized audiences

Back 49

i. Small
ii. Homogenous
iii. Networked

Front 50

How specialized audiences matter

Back 50

i. Generalizability suffers
ii. Fewer shared experiences
iii. Stronger commitments
iv. Stronger effects

Front 51

B. Function Of Mass Communication

Back 51

a. Transmitting information
b. Providing entertainment
c. Enforcing social norms
d. Mobilizing people
e. Building community
f. Status conferral
g. Providing an economy
h. Time displacement

Front 52

C. The EPS Cycle

Back 52

a. Elite
b. Popular (Mass)
c. Specialized

Front 53

Examples Of EPS Cycle

Back 53

*Newspapers
*Magazines
*Motion Pictures
*Radio
*Television

Front 54

D. Legacies Of Newspaper Phases

Back 54

Partisan
Penny
Yellow
Objective
Interpretive
Modern

Front 55

Partisan Age

Back 55

i. Editorials: Newspapers gives it opinion on some issue

Front 56

Penny Age

Back 56

i. Mass audience orientation; Low cost; Invented pyramid

Front 57

Yellow Age

Back 57

i. Watchdog press

Front 58

Objective Age

Back 58

i. Primary news style

Front 59

Interpretive Age

Back 59

i. Opinion columns; News analyses

Front 60

Modern Age

Back 60

i. Expanded focus; Color/graphics