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211 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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ABAB Design |
a single-subject research design in which baseline (A) is followed by the intervention (B), thereby withdrawal (A), and then by the introduction of the intervention again (B) |
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ABBA counterbalancing |
a technique in which read each participant experiences condition A followed by B and condition B followed by A |
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accidental sample/ convenience sample |
a sample composed of individuals who happened to be in the right place at the right time not to be confused with a random sample |
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accretion measures |
traces or products that accumulate as a result some behavior |
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accuracy |
one of the criteria by which the value of a scientific theory is judges. An accurate theory fits the known facts |
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action checklist |
a checklist used to record the presence or absence of specific behaviors and characteristics |
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alpha (a) |
the probability of making a Type 1 Error |
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alternating-treatments design/ between-series design |
a single-subject design in which two or more treatments are introduced to the subject randomly or systematically, so that the effectiveness of each treatment can be compared |
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alternative-form reliability |
an assessment of how well two forms of the same test yield comparable results |
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ceiling effect |
the situation in which the defendant variable yields scores at or narthex top limited the measurement tool for one or all of the conditions |
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changing-criterion design |
a single subject design used to assess an intervention when the criterion for that intervention is routinely changed |
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checklist |
a too used for data collection during observational studies |
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chi-squared goodness of fit test |
a nonparametric test that compares that categorical observations obtained to the babies expected on thesis of previous knowledge, hypotheses, or chance |
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chi-squaredtest of homogeneity of proportions |
a nonparametric test used when two random samples are chosen and each participant's response is classified as belonging to one of two or more categories. This test determines whether the proportions of responses in each category are equivalent for both samples |
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chi-squares test of independence |
a nonparametric test used when frequency data for two or more samples (or one sample divided into two or more groups_ have been collected on a categorical variable. This test determines whether the two independent variables are associated or independent |
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Cronbach's alpha |
a statistical technique that compiles the correlations of every item with every other item within a measurement tool |
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closed question |
survey, interview, or test questions that ask the respondent to choose from alternative potential answers |
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cluster sampling |
a technique in which clusters of elements that represent population are identified then all of the elements in those clusters are included in the sample |
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comparable treatment of groups |
a necessary conditions or conducting research using a between-groups design |
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complete within-subjects design |
a research design in which each participant experiences each experimental condition several times, until he or she received all possible orders of conditions |
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confederate |
a person with knowledge of the experiment posing as a participant |
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confidentiality |
secrecy about the identity of research participants |
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confound |
an uncontrolled, extraneous variable--or other flaw in the research design--the yields alternative explanations for there results and thus limits the study's internal validity |
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confounded results |
results of an investigation that can be explained in various ways because of the presence of one or more extraneous variables |
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construct validity |
the extent to which the concepts measured within the tool are actually being measured; it cane assessed by comparing the results of the new tool with the results of another established tool that measured the same construct |
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content analysis |
a coding system that is used to record data regarding the content of records |
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continuous or running records |
archival records that are maintained and added to on a routine basis |
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control |
a goal of research in psychology, to control some behaviors by understanding their causes |
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control group or control condition |
the group or condition within an investigation that does not receive the treatment being tested. The control group is used to demonstrate that any difference between the performance of the control group and the performance of the experimental group was a result of the independent variable an dont of some other aspect of the experiment |
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controlled trace measures |
a trace or product that cannot occur without the involvement of the researcher |
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correlated-samples t-test |
a parametric used to compare the means of two related samples or the means provided by one set of subjects tested twice. The formula is t=(d-0)/s(d) <- not entirely correct |
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correlation |
measure of the degree of relationship between two variables. The strength of the relationship is represented by the absolute value of the correlation coefficient. The direction of the relationship is represent by the sign of the correlation coefficient |
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correlational study |
an investigation in which relationships between or among variables can be identified, but causal inferences cannot be made because of the possible effects of uncontrolled variables |
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counterbalancing |
a procedure for distributing the effect of an extraneous variable across the experimental conditions within a within-subjects design |
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criterion validity |
measures how well the results of an instrument correlate with other outcomes or behaviors |
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cross-sectional design |
a design typically used to look at differences between different age groups |
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data |
recorded observations |
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data reduction |
the coding of notes and tapes to reduce the amount of information obtained to a more manageable level |
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debriefing |
fully explaining the purpose of the experiment to the participants, usually after the experiment is over |
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deception |
lying to, or misleading, research participants |
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degrees of freedom |
the number of observations that may freely vary; it is equal to the number of observations minus the numbers of restrictions placed on those observations |
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demand characteristics |
cues inadvertently provided by the researcher, the research materials, or the research setting that supply the research participant with information about the purpose of the investigation |
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demographic questions |
survey questions about the characteristics of a sample, such as average age, racial composition, and socioeconomic status |
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dependent variable |
what the experimenter measures in both experimental and control groups |
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description |
a goal of scientific research, to describe when behavior is likely to occur |
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descriptive statistics |
procedures that organize, summarize, and and describe a set of data |
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desensitization |
a technique in which the observer slowly moves closer to the participants until he or she can sit near or even amount them without disturbing them |
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difference scores |
the result of subtracting one score from another |
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discontinuous records |
archival records that are produced less continuously than running records, or perhaps only once |
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disguised participant studies |
studies in which the researcher is an active participant in the research situation but the other participants do not know that the research is observing their behavior |
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documents |
written or filmed material that (a) is not a record and (b) wasn't created in response to some task or request by the investigator |
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double-barrelled questions |
a survey, interview, or test question worded in such a manner as to ask more than one question at the same time |
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double-blind procedure procedure |
a research procedure in which neither the experimenter not the participants know to which condition the participants have been assigned |
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ecological validity |
the extent to which study results can be readily generalized to real life |
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effect size |
an indicator of the magnitude of a statical difference |
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elements |
members of the sample |
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erosion measures |
traces or products that result from the wearing away of material |
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error variance |
the variation among scores that is not caused by the independent variable but instead is caused by random factors or by extraneous variables |
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event sampling |
the random or systematic selection of events that include the behavior of interest |
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experimental group or experimental condition |
the group or condition in an investigation that receives a treatment |
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institutional reviews boards (IRBs) |
committees of individuals with diverse backgrounds who review proposals for research with human participants |
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instrumentation effect |
the confound arising when a measuring device failed to measure in the same manner across observations |
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interaction effect |
in a factorial design, the effect of a dependent measure on an independent variable within each level of each independent variable |
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interaction of selection with other threats to internal validity |
the confound arising when comparison groups are not equivalent and an extraneous variable affects one group but not the other |
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internal validity |
the extent to which a study actually answers the research questions hat it was designed to answer. A study with good internal validity has no confounds and only one explanation for the results |
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interobserver reliability |
the degree to which a measurement procedure yields consistent results when used by different observers. One general formula is ( Number of agreements / Number of opportunities for agreement ) x 100 |
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interval scale |
a measurement scale characterized by equal units of measurement throughout the scale. Thus, measurements made with an interval scale provided information about both the order and the relative quantity of the characteristic being measured. Interval scales of measurement, however, do not have a true zero value; thus, negative values are meaningful |
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interviewer bias |
the confound that arises when an interviewer's behaviors, questions, or recording procedures result in data that are consistent with the interviewer's personal beliefs and constitute an inaccurate record of respondent's true opinions or behavior |
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intuition |
a way of knowing based on the individual's own gut reaction |
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keywords |
terms used to guide a search of the literature |
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Latin square |
a technique for an incomplete within-subjects design in which each condition is presented in each ordinal position and is presented before and after each other condition. Th number of sequences necessary is equal to the number of conditions in the study; thus, writing one sequence on each line, we obtain a square. A latin for four conditions is ABCD, BDAC, CADB, DCAB |
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laws |
specific statements that are generally expressed int he form of a mathematical equation with only a few variables. Laws have so much empirical support that their accuracy is beyond reasonable doubt |
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leading questions |
survey, interview, or test questions in which information is presented in such manner that the respondent is more likely to give the answer that the researcher wants |
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levels or conditions of independent variable |
the groups or categories within the independent variable; for example, depression and elation may be levels of an independent variable called mood |
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loaded questions |
survey, interview, or test questions that include non neutral or emotionally laden terms |
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longitudinal design |
a repeated-masures design meant to look for changes that occur over time |
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mail surveys |
written, self-administered questionnaires |
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main effect |
the effect of an independent variable on a dependent measure within a factorial design |
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marginal means |
the average of scores for each level of an independent variable, disregarding other independent variables. Marginal means are used in factorial designs to interpret main effects |
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matching |
identifying pairs (or more) of participants who measure similarly on a characteristic that is related to the dependent variable and then randomly assigning each of these participants to separate experimental conditions |
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maturation effect |
a change in the participants' performance on the dependent variable due simply to the passage of time |
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mean |
the arithmetic average of the scores in a distributions of scores. The means calculated by adding the score sin the distribution and dividing by the number of scores |
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measurement |
systematically assigning numbers to objects, events, or characteristics according to a set of rules |
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measures of central tendency |
statistical characteristics describing the approximate center of a distribution of scores; they include the mean, the median, and sometimes the mode |
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measures of dispersion |
statistical characteristics that describe how speed out the scores are in a distribution; they include the range, average deviation, standard deviation, and variance |
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median |
the middle score, or 50th percentile, in a set of scores |
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meta-analysis |
a statistical analysis of the results of a compilation of studies that are all looking at more-or-less the same phenomenon |
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minimal risk |
a situation in which the risk to the participants of research project is no greater than that encountered in daily life |
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mixed or split-plot design |
a factorial design involving at least one between-groups and one within-subjects variable |
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mode |
the score in a set of discrete data that occurs more frequently |
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multimodal |
containing more than two mode scores |
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multiple time-series design |
a quasi experimental design that combines the time-series design and the pretest-posttest design with nonequivalent groups by making multiple observations of an experimental group and its nonequivalent control group |
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multiple-baselines design |
a single-subject design in which the effectiveness of a treatment is assessed on two or more behaviors or across two or more situations |
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narrative record |
a running record of behavior occurring in a given situation. Narrative records can be created by audio or video recording a situation, or by means of handwritten notes |
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natural trace measures |
traces or products that occur without researcher intervention |
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naturalistic observation |
unobtrusively observing behaviors in the natural setting. The investigator does nothing to interfere with the participants' behavior |
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negative correlation |
a relationship between two variables such that, as one variable increases the other variable decreases |
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nominal scale |
a scale of measurement that categorizes objects or individuals. The order of the categories is arbitrary and unimportant |
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nomothetic |
related to the study of groups in an attempt to identify general laws and principles of behavior |
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nonequivalent-control-group design |
a type of quasi-experimental design in which the experimental group is compared to with a comparable, but not equivalent, control group |
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nonparametric test |
a statistical test that does no require as many assumptions about the population represented by the sample as does a parametric test. Also, called assumption-free tests or assumption freer tests |
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nonprobability sampling techniques |
the same is formed without considering the probability of each member of the population |
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nonreactive |
not affected by the act of acquiring the measures |
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nonsystematic subject mortality |
the loss of data when participants withdraw from a study or their data cannot be used for reasons unrelated to the experiment itself |
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null hypothesis |
the prediction that there is no difference between the groups being compared. The null hypothesis is true if the population that the sample is from is the same as the population with which it is being compared. |
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objective |
devoid of influences from attitudes and beliefs |
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observer bias |
bias introduced into data collection by the beliefs and attitudes of the observer |
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one-tailed hypothesis |
a type of alternative hypothesis in which the searched predicts the direction of the difference between the groups being compared |
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open-ended questions |
survey, interview, or test questions that do not provide specific options for answers but instead provide room or time for the respondent to formulate his or her own response |
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operational definitions |
a definition of the exact procedures used to produce a phenomenon or to measure from variable |
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ordinal scale |
a measurement scale in which objects or individuals are categorized and the order of the categories is important. The order of the categories reflects an increase in the amount of the characteristic being measured. The categories need no the of equal size. |
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outliers |
scores in a distribution that are inordinately large or small relative to the other scores |
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parameter |
a characteristic of a population |
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parametric tests |
statistical tests in which the sample statistics are assumed to be estimates of population parameters |
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parsimony |
the assumptions that, of two equally accurate explanations, the one based on simpler assumptions is preferable |
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participant observation |
studies in which the researcher is an active participant in the situation along with the participants who are being observed |
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Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficient |
a statistic used to determine the correlation between two variables measured on either a ratio or an interval scale |
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peer review |
the process sued to review a manuscript for publication in a scholarly journal by having it reviewed by experts in the field |
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personal interviews |
a type of survey that involves a person-to-person meeting between the interviewer and respondent |
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physical trace measure |
data generated from physical evidence in the absence of the individuals whose behavior was responsible for the evidence |
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physical trace studies |
investigations involving the study of physical evidence left by individuals' behavior |
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pilot study |
a smaller, preliminary study conducted to answer questions about procedures for the full scale version of the investigation |
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placebo |
an inert substance or treatment that has no physical effect on the participants |
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placebo effect |
the confound arising when a behavior change is apparent after the introduction of an intervention, even though the intervention is known to be ineffectual |
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plagiarism |
the presentation of another's work, words, or ideas as one's own |
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pooled variance |
the average variance of two samples weighted by the degrees by the degrees of freedom for each sample |
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population |
all of the individuals to whom a research project is meant to generalize |
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positive correlation |
a relationship between two variables such that, as one variable increases, the other variable also increases |
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Power |
the probability of detecting a difference between the groups in the study when the null hypothesis is false. Power is calculated as 1-B(beta) |
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practice effect |
the confound arising when participants' performance on a task improves because they have repeated the task |
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precision |
a criterion by which theories are evaluated on how precisely they are states. A more precisely states theory is considered better than one containing vague statements |
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predictions |
an objective of research, to predict when behaviors or phenomena will occur |
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pre experimental design |
a simple type of research design in an applied setting that yields results for which there are several alternative explanations |
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pretest and posttest measures |
measurements made in a nonequivalent-control-group design before and after the introduction of a treatment to the experimental group |
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pretest-posttest design |
a research design in which one ore more groups of subjects are tested before and after some treatment is administered to the experimental group |
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pretest-posttest design with nonequivalent group |
a type of quasi-experimental design in which the experimental group is compared with a comparable, but not equivalent, control group |
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pretesting |
a measurement made before the introduction of an independent variable |
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principles |
statements that predict a phenomenon with a certain level of probability |
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privacy |
an invisible physical or psychological buffer zone or boundary around a person |
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products |
physical evidence created by individuals |
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quasi-experimental design |
a type of research design in which nonequivalent groups are compared, a single group is observed a number of times, r both of these techniques are combined |
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quota sampling |
a sampling technique in which differing numbers of participants are chosen for each sample from various subgroups of a population by identifying convenient sources of subgroup members and soliciting participants from these sources |
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random assignment |
assigning participants to experimental conditions within an investigation in a manner such that each participant is equally likely to be assigned to each condition |
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random order with rotation |
a technique for presenting conditions to participants in an incomplete within-subjects design. In this approach, the experimental conditions are ordered randomly and the first subject received this order. Another order of the conditions is obtained by moving the first condition to the last place and shifting all of the other conditions up one the next subject receives this order. Then the conditions are moved one place forward again, and the previously first condition is shifted to last place; the next subject receives this order. This rotation continues until each condition has occupied each position in the sequence |
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random sample |
a sample in which the elements were selected randomly from a sampling frame |
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random selection |
a manner of sample selection in which all members of the population are equally likely to be chosen as part of the sample. This should be not be confused with haphazardly or arbitrarily choosing elements for a sample |
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range |
the number of possible values for scores in a discrete data set; for a data set taken from a continuous distribution, the interval of scores covered by the data |
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ratio scale |
a measurement scale the provides information about order; all units are of equal size throughout the scale, and there is a true zero value. The true zero allows ratios of values to be formed |
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rational-inductive argument |
a way of knowing based on reasoning |
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reactive measure |
a measurement of behavior that is susceptible to reactivity |
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reactivity |
the tendency for behavior touching when participants know that they are being observed |
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records |
written statements presented to provide an account or attest to an event. Records are produced for the consumption of another. Do not confuse with documents |
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region or rejection |
the area of a sampling distribution beyond the critical value of the test statistic. If a score falls within the region of rejection, null hypothesis is rejected |
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regression toward the mean |
the phenomenon that extreme scores tend to be less extreme upon retesting; they move toward the mean |
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reliability |
the consistency with which the same results are obtained from the same test, instrument, or procedure |
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recreated-measures design |
a research design in which one group of subjects is tested two ore more times by means of the same measurement tool |
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response rate |
the extent to which people who receive a survey or are approached to complete an interview complete the survey or interview Formula = ( number of responses / number in sample - (ineligible and undeliverable requests)) x 100 |
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reversal design |
a single-subject design in which the effectiveness of an intervention is determined by withdrawing the intervention and introducing a new and opposite intervention |
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risk |
the potential for physical or psychological harm to a research participant |
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sample
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a subset of a population |
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sampling bias |
the extent to which a sample does not represent the underlying population |
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sampling distribution |
a frequency distribution of sample means |
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sampling frame |
a list of all of the members of a population; the sampling frame serves as the operational definition of the population |
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scattergram |
a graphical representation of a correlation between two variables |
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scientific method |
a set of procedures used to gain information in the sciences; it involved systematic observations obtained in an objective manner that avoids biases by the observer or by the participants in the study |
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scientific misconduct |
acts in which a researcher modifies or lies about data so that the results of the research will be more impressive |
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selection bias |
the confound arising when there are differences between the comparison groups within a study |
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selective deposit |
the circumstance that all traces are not equally representative of past behavior (children and adult for fingerprints on glass window) |
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selective survival |
the confound arising when some subset of trace or product evidence does not endure over time |
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sensitivity of the dependent variable |
the ability of the dependent variable to demonstrate subtle differences between the experimental conditions |
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significant difference |
a difference between wo descriptive statistics-such as means-that is of such a magnitude as to be unlikely to have occurred by change alone |
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single-blind procedure |
a research procedure in which either the participants or the experimenter does not know to which condition the participants have been assigned |
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single-sample t-test |
a parametric test used to compare the mean of a single sample to a population mean |
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single-subject designs |
research designs in which only one subject need to be observed. The goal in single-subject designs is to eliminate as many alternative hypotheses for the results as possible |
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situation sampling |
making observations in different settings and circumstances in order to obtain a representative sample of behavior |
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snowball sampling |
a sampling technique in which research participants are asked to identify other potential participants |
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socially desirable responses |
responses that reflect what is deemed appropriate by society but do not necessarily reflect the respondent's true beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors |
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Spearman's rho |
a statistic used to determine the correlation between two variables that have been ranked |
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split-half reliability |
the degree which respondents' replies to half of the items on a measurement tool is related to their replies to the other half of the items |
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standard deviation |
the square root of the variance |
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standard error or differences between means |
the standard deviation for the sampling distribution composed of differences between sample means |
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static checklist |
a checklist used to record characteristics that will not change during the course of the observations |
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statistical analysis |
the summarization and analysis of data |
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stratified random sampling |
stratified sampling in which members of the sample are chosen randomly |
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stratified sampling |
a sample technique intended to guarantee that the sample will be representative of specific subgroups of the population, called strata. The sampling frame is divided into such strata, and then the elements of the sample are chosen from the strata |
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Student's t-distributions |
a family of distributions that, like the normal distribution, are symmetric and bell-shaped; in contrast to the normal distribution, however, there is a different distribution for each sample size |
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subject bias |
all of the biases and expectations that a participant brings to a study |
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subject mortality or subject attrition |
the loss of data when participants withdraw from a study of their data cannot be used |
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subject or attribute variable |
a measurable characteristic of the participant, such as height, weight, or gender, that cannot manipulated by a researched. When used as an independent variable, subject variables provide correlational information but not causal information |
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subjective |
influenced by biases and irrational beliefs |
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superstition |
a method of knowing based on irrational beliefs |
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systematic subject mortality |
the loss of data occurring when more participants from one experimental condition withdraw from a study than another |
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t-test |
an inferential statistical test for comparing two means |
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telephone surveys |
surveys conducted over the telephone |
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test-retest reliability |
the degree to which a tool generates the same responses upon retesting |
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testability |
a criterion by which theories are evaluated. A testable theory is one that can, in principle, be proven wrong |
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testing effect |
the phenomenon in which repeated testing leads to better scores |
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theory |
a set of related statements that explain and predict phenomena. The statements used in a theory can be laws, principles, or beliefs |
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time sampling |
a technique where the times at which observations will be made are determined in an effort to obtain a representative sample of behaviors. Time sampling may be done randomly or systematically |
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time-series design |
a type of quasi-experimental design in which multiple observations are made of a single group |
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traces |
evidence left as a by-product of behavior |
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two-tailed hypothesis |
a type of alternative hypothesis in which the searcher simply predicts that the two groups being compared will differ, but doe snot predict the direction of that difference |
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Type 1 Error |
rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true |
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Type 2 Error |
failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is false |
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undisguised participant studies |
studies in which the researcher is an active participant in the research situation and the other participants are aware that the researcher is observing their behavior |
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validity |
the extent to which test, instrument, or procedure is measuring what it purports to measure |
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variance |
a measure of dispersion in which the average squared deviation from the mean is determined for a distribution of scores |
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withdrawal design |
a single-subject design in which a intervention is introduced after baseline and then withdrawn to determine whether the intervention affects performance |
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within-group variance |
an estimate of the population error variance |
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within-subjects design |
research design in which each participant receives each level of the independent variable at least once |
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z-score |
standard score that indicates how many standard deviations a raw score is above or believe the mean |
