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159 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Analytic introspection
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A procedure used by early psychologists in which trained participants described their experiences and thought processes elicited by stimuli presented under controlled conditions
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Artificial intelligence
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The ability of a computer to perform tasks usually associated with human intelligence
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Behavioral approach
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Studying the mind by measuring a person's behavior and explaining this behavior in behavioral terms
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Behaviorism
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founded by John B. Watson, states that observable behavior provides the only valid data for psychology. Consequence=consciousness and unobservable mental processes are not considered worth of study by psychologists
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Choice reaction time
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The time it takes to react to one of two or more stimuli;
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Classical Conditioning
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A procedure in which paring in a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a response causes the neutral stimulus to elicit that response
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Cognition
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The mental processes involved in perception, attention, memory, language problem solving, reasoning, and making decisions
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Cognitive map
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Mental conception of a spatial layout
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Cognitive Psychology
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attempts to explain how humans perform cognitive activities like: seeing, remembering, understanding, communicating, learning, and solving problems. (Study of mind and mental processes)
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Cognitive revolution
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A shift in psychology, beginning 1950s, from behaviorist approach to an approach in which the main thrust was to explain behavior in terms of the mind. (info-processing approach)
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Information-processing approach
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Approach to psychology developed in the beginning of the 1950s in which the mind is described as processing information through a sequence of stages
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Logic theorist
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Computer program devised by Newell & Simon that was able to solve logic problems
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Memory consolidation
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Process by which experience or information that has entered the memory system becomes strengthened so it is resistant to interference caused by trauma or other events
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Mind
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System that creates and controls mental functions and creates mental representations of the world
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Operant conditioning
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Type of conditioning championed by Skinner, focuses on how behavior is strengthened by presentation of positive reinforcers or withdrawal of negative reinforcers
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Physiological approach
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Studying the mind by measuring physiological and behavioral responses and explaining behavior in physiological terms
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Reaction Time
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The time it takes to react to a stimulus
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Savings method
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Method used to measure retention in Ebbinghaus's memory experiments.
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Simple Reaction Time
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Reacting to the presence or absence of a single stimulus
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Structuralism
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An approach to psychology that explained perception as the adding up of small elementary units called sensations
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Action potential
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Electrical potential that travels down a neuron's axon
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Axon
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Part of the neuron that transmits signals from the cell body to the synapse at the end of the axon
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Brain imaging
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fMRI and PET; result in images of the brain that represent brain activity; measured with responses to specific cog tasks
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Broca's aphasia
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A condition associated with damage to Broca's area (frontal lobe) characterized by difficulty in using speech to express thoughts, but with a remaining facility for understanding speech
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Broca's area
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An area in the frontal love associated with the production of language
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Cell body
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part of cell that contains mechanisms that keep cell alive; sometimes receives information
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Cerebral Cortex
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3-mm thick outer layer of the brain that contains the mechanisms responsible for higher mental functions
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Cognitive neuroscience
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Field involved studying neural basis of cognition
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Distributed coding
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Representation of an object or experience by the pattern of firing of a number of neurons
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Distributed processing
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Processing that involves a number of different areas of the brain
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Event-related potential (ERP)
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measure electrical potentials on the scalp while processing a stimulus (excellent temporal/noninvasive) (poor spatial resolution)
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Feature detectors
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Neurons that respond to specific visual features that make up environmental stimuli (like orientation, size, etc.)
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Frontal Lobe
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The love in the front of the brain that serves higher functions such as language, though, memory, and motor functioning
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Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
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measures brain activity by oxygen concentration (good spatial resolution) (poor temporal resolution/physical limits)
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Fusiform face area (FFA)
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An area in the temporal lobe that contains many neurons that respond selectively to faces
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Grandmother cell
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A neuron that responds only to a highly specific stimulus
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Localization of function
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Location of specific functions in specific areas of the brain
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Neuron
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Cell that is specialized to receive and transmit information in the nervous system
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Neurotransmitter
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CHEMICAL that is released at the synapse in response to incoming action potentials
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Occipital lobe
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The lobe at the back of the brain that is devoted primarily to analyzing incoming visual information
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Parahippocampal place area (PPA)
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An area in the temporal lobe that contains neurons that are selectively activated by pictures of indoor and outdoor scenes
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Parietal lobe
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The lobe at the top of the brain that contains mechanisms responsible for sensations caused by stimulation of the skin
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Positron emission tomography (PET)
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A brain imaging technique involving the injection of a radioactive tracer (quick results vs. invasive)
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Prosopagnosia
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Condition caused by damage to the temporal love that is characterized by an inability to recognize faces
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Subtraction technique/method
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Choice RT - Simple RT=Duration of Decision Time
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Temporal Lobe
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The lobe on the side of the brain that contains mechanisms responsible for language, memory, hearing and vision
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Wernicke's aphasia
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caused by damage to Wernicke's area; characterized by difficulty in understanding language, fluency, and grammar but incoherent speech
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Wernicke's area
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Area in temporal love associated with understanding language
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Algorithm
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A procedure guaranteed to solve a problem
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Bottom-up processing
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Processing that starts with information received by the receptors (data-based)
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Dissociation
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brain damage causes a problem in one function while not affecting other functions
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Double Dissociation
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single dissociation can be demonstrated in one person and opposite can be demonstrated in another
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Law of familiarity
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Things are more likely to form groups if the groups appear familiar or meaningful
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Geon
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The basic feature unit of the recognition-by-components approach to object perception (basic, three-dimensional volumes)
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Gestalt psychologists
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Group of psychologists who proposed principles governing perception and a perceptual approach to problem solving involving restructuring
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Law of Good continuation
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Points that, when connected, result in a straight or smoothly curving lines are seen as belonging together
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Law of Good Figure
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stimulus pattern seen that structure is as simple as possible
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Heuristic
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A "rule of thumb" that provides a best-guess solution to a problem
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Landmark discrimination problem
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(where pathway) remember a location of a stimulus after it disappeared
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Light-from-above heuristic
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Assumption that the light is coming from above
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Mirror neuron
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Neuron that responds when both the monkey observes an action and when the monkey performs the action (monkey and humans)
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Object discrimination problem
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remember an object based on its shape and choose it when presented with another object after a delay (what pathway)
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Oblique effect
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the finding that vertical and horizontal orientations can be perceived more easily than other orientations
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Perception pathway
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(what pathway) Neural pathway associated with perceiving and recognizing objects
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Recognition-by-components
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feature based approach to object perception that proposes that the recognition of objects is based on three-dimensional features called geons
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Law of Similarity
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Law of perceptual organization that states that similar things appear to be grouped together
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Single Dissociation
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damage causes a problem in one function while not affecting other functions
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Top-down processing
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Processing that involves a person's knowledge or expectations
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WHAT pathway
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extending from the occipital lobe to the temporal lobe that is associated with perceiving or recognizing objects
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WHERE pathway
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Extending from occipital lobe to the parietal lobe that is associated with neural processing that occurs when people locate objects in space; action pathway
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Balint's syndrome
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A condition caused by brain damage in which a person has difficulty focusing attention on individual objects
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Change Blindness
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Difficulty detecting changes in similar but slightly different scenes; easy to see after pointed out
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Cognitive Load
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The amount of a person's cognitive resources needed to carry out a particular cognitive task
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Cognitive resources
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The idea that a person has a certain cognitive capacity, or resources, that can be used for carrying out various tasks
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Early Selection Model
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early filtering out of the unattended message. The filtering step occurs before the message is analyzed to determine its meaning
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Feature Integration Theory
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Object perception occurs in a sequence of stages in which features are first analyzed and then combined to result in perception of an object
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Fixation
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In perception and attention, a pausing of the eyes on places of interest while observing a scene
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High-load tasks
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A task that uses most or all of a person's resources and so leave little capacity to handle other tasks
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Late Selection Model
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Selection of stimuli for final processing does not occur until after the information in the message has been analyzed
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Low-load tasks
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A task that uses few resources, leaving some capacity to handle other tasks.
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Object-based attention
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Enhancing effects of attention can be located on a particular object
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Pre-attentive Stage
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The first stage of Treisman's feature integration theory, in which an object is analyzed into its features
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Selective Attention
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The ability to focus on one message and ignore all others
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Stroop Effect
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Participant instructed to respond to one aspect of a stimulus and ignore other aspect (color vs. word)
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Articulatory suppression
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Interference with operation of the phonological loop that occurs when a person repeats an irrelevant word such as "the" while carrying out a task that requires the phonological loop
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Chunk/Chunking
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Collection of elements that are strongly associated with each other but weakly with other chunks/technique to increase the capacity of memory
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Encoding
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The process of acquiring information and transferring it into memory
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Phonological loop
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The part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information
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Proactive interference
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When information learned previously interferes with learning new information
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Retrieval
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The process of remembering information that has been stored in long-term memory
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Short-tem memory (STM)
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A memory mechanism that can hold a limited amount of information for a brief period of time unless there is rehearsal that can maintain information in shot term memory
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Visuospatial sketch pad
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The part of working memory that holds and processes visual and spatial information
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Word length effect
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The notion that it is more difficult to remember a list of long words that list of short words
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Anterograde amnesia
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Amnesia that occurs after an injury--inability to form new memories
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Conceptual priming
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Priming that occurs when the enhancement caused by a priming stimulus is based on the meaning of the stimulus
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Declarative memory
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Memory that involves conscious recollections of previously experience events or facts
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Episodic memory
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Memory for specific events that have happened to the person having the memory (personal experience)
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Explicit memory
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Memory that involves conscious recollections of events or facts that we have learned in the past
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Implicit memory
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Memory that occurs when an experience affects a person's behavior, even though the person is not aware that he or she has had the experience
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Korsakoff's Syndrome
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A condition caused by prolonged vitamin B1; cause severe damage to frontal and temporal lobe and impair memory
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Long-term memory (LTM)
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A memory mechanism that can hold large amounts of information for long periods of time.
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Nondeclarative memory
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Memory that occurs when an experience affects a person's behavior, even though the person is not aware that he or she has had the experience
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Primacy effect
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In a memory experiment in which a list of words is presented, enhanced memory for words presented at the beginning of the list
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Propaganda effect
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People are more likely to rate statements they have read/heard before as being true, just because of prior exposure to the statements
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Recency effect
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In a memory experiment in which a list of words is presented, enhanced memory for words presented at the end of the list
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Recognition memory
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Identifying a stimulus that was encountered earlier
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Retrograde amnesia
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the inability to remember information from the past
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Semantic memory
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Memory for knowledge about the world that is not tied to any specific personal experience
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Consolidation
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The process that transforms new memories into a state in which they are more resistant to disruption
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Elaborative rehearsal
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Rehearsal that involves thinking about the meaning of an item to be remembered or making connections between that item and prior knowledge
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Generation effect
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Memory for material is better when a person generates the material rather than passively receiving it
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Levels of processing theory
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The idea that memory depends on how information is encoded with better memory being achieved when processing is deep than when processing is shallow
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Maintenance rehearsal
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Rehearsal that involves repetition without any consideration of meaning or making connections to other information
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Retrieval/Cues
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The process of remembering information that has been stored in long-term memory/things that help
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Standard model of consolidation
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Memory retrieval depends on the hippocampus during consolidation but once consolidated, retrieval no longer depends on the hippocampus
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Flashbulb memory
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Memory of circumstances surrounding hearing about highly charged events; vivid and accurate
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Misinformation effect
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Misleading info presented after a person witnesses an event can change how the person describes that event later
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Retroactive interference
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When more recent learning interferes with memory for something that happened in the past
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Schema
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A person's knowledge about what is involved in a particular experience
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Source monitoring
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process how people determine the origins of memories, knowledge and beliefs
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Script
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Type of schema; The conception of the sequence of actions that describe a particular activity
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Categorization
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The process by which objects are placed into categories
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Concept
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Mental representation used for a variety of cognitive functions
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Lexical decision task
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A procedure in which a person is asked to decide as quickly as possible whether a particular stimulus is a word or nonword
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Superordinate level
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Highest level of Rosch's categorization scheme
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Subordinate level
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Below basic on Rosch's categorization scheme
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Spreading activation
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Activity that spreads out along any link in a semantic network that is connected to an activated node
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Mental imagery
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Experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of sensory input
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Propositional representation
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A representation in which relationships are represented by symbols as when the words of language represent objects and the relationships between objects
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Spatial representation
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A representation in which different parts of an image can be described as corresponding to specific locations in space
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Unilateral neglect
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Caused by brain damage to the parietal lobes where patient ignores objects in the opposite side of the brain damage's visual field
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Visual imagery
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A type of mental imagery involving vision, in which an image is experienced in the absence of a visual stimulus
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Analogical transfer
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The application of problem-solving strategies experienced in solving one problem to the solution of another, similar problem
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Convergent thinking
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Thinking that works toward finding a solution to a specific problem that usually has a correct answer
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Design fixation
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Presenting a sample design influences the creation of new designs
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Functional fixedness
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an effect that occurs when the ideas a person has about an object's functional inhibit the person's ability to use the object for a different function
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Mental set
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Preconceived notion about how to approach a problem which is determined by a person's experience or what has worked in the past
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Mutilated checkerboard problem
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A problem that has been used to study how the statement of a problem influences a person's ability to reach a solution
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Radiation problem
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Destroying a tumor, must shoot rays from several different angles
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Source problem
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a problem/story analogous to the target problem and therefore provides information that can lead to a solution to the target problem
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Tower of Hanoi
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A problem involving moving discs from one set of pegs to another
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Affirming the antecedent
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affirmed in second premise; if p then q
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Affirming the consequent
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invalid form of conditional syllogism; if p then q--q therefore p
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Availability heuristic
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Basing judgements of the frequency of events on what events come to mind
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Base rate
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the relative proportions of different classes in a population; failure to consider leads to errors of reasoning
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Confirmation bias
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The tendency to selectively look for information that conforms to our hypothesis and to overlook infer that argues against it
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Conjunction rule
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The probability of the conjunction of two events cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents
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Deductive reasoning
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Reasoning that involves syllogisms in which a conclusion locally follows from premises
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Denying the antecedent
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An invalid form of the conditional syllogism of if p then q--not p therefore not q
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Denying the consequent
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valid form of conditional syllogism of it p then q; not q therefore not p
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Framing effect
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Decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated
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Inductive reasoning
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Reasoning in which a conclusion follows from a consideration of evidence
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Omission bias
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The tendency to do nothing to avoid having to make a decision that could be interpret as causing harm
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Pragmatic reasoning schema
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A way of thinking about cause and effect in the world that is learned as part of experiencing everyday life
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Representativeness heuristic
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The probability that an event A comes from class B can be determined by how well A resembles the properties of class B
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Risk aversion
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The tendency to make decisions that avoid risk
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Risk-aversion strategy
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A decision making strategy that is governed by the idea of avoiding risk (used when stated in terms of gains)
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Risk-taking strategy
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A decision making strategy that is governed by the idea of taking risks (used when stated in terms of risks)
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Wason 4-card problem
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A conditional reasoning task involving four cards. Flip over correct first condition and wrong second condition
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