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45 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are memory errors and some examples of them? |
What occur when you remember something incorrectly People in Amsterdam remembered seeing a recording of a plane crash on tv, but there never was one In a study, participants report seeing books in an office even when there aren't any |
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How do memory errors occur? |
Through memory networks: if memory is a network, then events are connected to many other related nodes, and these connections (while aid in retrieval) can lead us to remember events incorrectly because they get incorporated into the memory we're creating |
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What are intrusion errors? |
Errors in which other knowledge intrudes into the remembered event |
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What was the "Nancy" story experiment? |
Participants had to read a passage and remember it, some had a prologue, some didn't. Those with the prologue had better memory, but made more intrusions errors |
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What was Bransford & Johnson's experiment? |
Participants read "pounding nails" & "looking for nails"; those who read "pouding" were more likely to say that they saw a sentence that referred to hammer before
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What is the DRM paradigm and an example of it? |
When participants read a list of words that are all related to a different hook word, most will recall the hook word even though they never saw it on the list (i.e. seeing "bed","dream","rest" and remembering "sleep") |
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What is a schema? |
Knowledge about what is involved in a particular experience (i.e. post office, classroom, ballgame) |
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How do schemata affect our memories? |
Because we know what to expect in certain situations, these expectations influence our memory of certain experiences by either helping us remember an event, or causing us to falsely remember and event (i.e. seeing books in an office when there are none) |
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What is a script? |
A conception of a sequence of actions that occur during a particular experience (i.e. going to a restaurant or the dentist's) |
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What was Bartlett's "War of the Ghosts" experiment? |
Participants tried to remember a story from a different culture and were made to repeat the story from memory multiple times. Over time, their reproductions became shorter, contained omissions, and inaccuracies. They changed the story to make it fit into their own culture (i.e. arrows to guns). |
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What is the misinformation effect? |
When misleading information is presented to someone after they witness an event, it changes how that person remembers and describes the event later |
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What was Loftus & Palmer's experiment? |
Participants viewed images of car accident and were asked how fast cars were going when they ___ each other. The wording of the question significantly effected how the participants remembered the event, with more violent words leading them to answer with a higher mph. Demonstrates misinformation effect because the word used altered the participants' memories |
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What is memory trace replacement? |
When the MPI impairs/replaces memories that were formed during original event (i.e. misleading word causes you to remember something else) |
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What is retroactive interference? |
When more recent learning interferes with memory for something in the past (original memory is not replaced) |
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What is a source monitoring error? |
Failure to distinguish the source of the information (MPI is misattributed to the original source) |
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What was Loftus et al.'s misinformation experiment? |
Showed participants video of car passing either a stop sign or a yield sign, then asked them a question regarding a stop sign or yield sign. Hearing one sign or the other in the question led them to mistakingly remember that sign in the video. |
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What was Bekerian & Bowers' study and what were the results? |
Replication of Loftus et al., but slides presented in chronological order. Participants who got misleading information were almost as accurate as those who didn't, which couldn't have happened if the original memory had be lost/replaced. Goes against the memory-trace replacement hypothesis. |
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What was Loftus et al's false memory experiment? |
Participants parents gave descriptions of childhood experiences to researchers, and when discussing them with the participants would throw in an event that never happened, but participants would believe that it did (i.e. boy believed he had got lost in a shopping mall and made up specifics in his mind) |
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What other ways can you implant a false memory into someone's mind? |
By showing them a photoshopped picture, or a real picture of just the general time period in question and telling them that a certain thing happened |
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What is an example of I.D. errors that occur in eyewitness testimony? |
Wells & Bradfield: participants view a security tape with gunman in view for 8 seconds, then have to identify gunman based off of pictures afterwards. Everyone chose a picture (even though the real gunman's picture wasn't there) |
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How does attention affect eyewitness testimony? |
People can have: low attention: attend to irrelevant information high attention: focus too narrowly moderate attention: best for being aware of relevant information |
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What was Stanny and Johnson's experiment? |
Participants were asked questions about an event in which there was a weapon that was or was not fired. If the weapon was fired, it led to decrease in the participants' memories of all parts (perpetrator, victim, & weapon). This occurred because the firing of the gun increases the participants' stress, which decreases their memory. |
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How do eyewitness testimony errors occure due to familiarity, and what is an example of this? |
Because of source-monitoring: witnesses will choose a "familiar" face even if that person isn't the culprit Ex: participants shown a video of a male or female teacher, then the female teacher being robbed, and asked to identify robber. If robber isn't in photospread & male teacher is, participants will choose him instead. |
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How do eyewitness testimony errors occur due to suggestion and feedback? |
If an eyewitness is subject to suggestive questioning by police, or if the police confirm the eyewitnesses false belief, this will increase the eyewitnesses confidence in their decision, altering their memory. |
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How does post-event questioning affect eyewitness testimony? |
After recieving confirming feeback in questioning, eyewitnesses will be increasingly confident in their accuracy of the events |
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What can be done to improve the accuracy of eyewitness testimony? |
Inform the witness that the perpetrator might not be in the lineup Use "fillers" in lineup similar to suspect Use simultaneous lineups (all suspects at once) rather then sequential lineups (one suspect at a time) Improve interviewing technique (cognitive interview) |
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When is memory confidence accurate? |
The confidence that someone reports immediately after their first choice is much more accurate than when asked later |
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What experiment studies memory confidence? |
Wixted et al.: paricipants first assessment of their confidence level is VERY predictive of the accuracy of their testimony |
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What is autobiographical memory and its characteristics? |
Memory of episodes and events in a person's own life Like "time travel" because you go back in time to that memory Multidimensional--spatial, emotional, & sensory |
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What is the self-reference effect? |
Having better memory for information relevant to oneself |
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What is a self-schema? |
A set of beliefs and memories about oneself |
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What was Cabeza & coworkers' study and what were its results? |
Participants took pictures of college landmarks, then looked at either their own photos or photos taken by others. Both types activated brain structures involved in episodic memory & processing scenes, but A-photos also activated brain areas for processing info about the self, memory for visual space, & mental time travel. This shows that autobiographical memories are more rich than basic episodic memories. |
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How can we make errors with our autobiographical memory? |
Our self-schema can alter our memories about ourselves Our memories are biased to emphasize consistency and positive traits (e.g. misremembering grades as higher) |
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What types of events are remembered well in our autobiographical memory? |
Significant events in a person's life Highly emotional events Transition points |
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What is the reminiscence bump? |
The period between adolescence and young-adulthood in which people tend to remember the most events |
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What are some explanantions for why we have a reminiscence bump? |
Self-image hypothesis Cognitive hypothesis Cultural life-script hypothesis |
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What is the self-image hypothesis? |
Says that memory is enhanced for events that occur as a person's self-image or life identity is being formed
People assume identities during adolescence & young-adulthood, so this leads to better recollection of this time period |
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What is the cognitive hypothesis? |
Says that encoding is better during periods of rapid change that are followed by stability
Evidence: adults (young or old) who emigrate to the US show a shift in their reminiscence bump to the time of their move |
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What is the cultural life-script hypothesis? |
Says that each person has a personal life story & an understanding of culturally expected events, so personal events are easier to recall when they fit this cultural life script |
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Why are emotional events remembered more vividly? |
Emotion improves memory & becomes greater with time (which may enhace consolidation) Brain activity: emotional events activate the amygdala which leads to better consolidation Others: narrowing of attention (emotion = importance) more rehearsal --> sense of stronger recollection |
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What are flashbulb memories and what are their characteristics? |
Memories for circumstances surrounding shocking, highly charged important events Highly emotional, vivid, very detailed, & subjectively perceived as accurate, but may be even more inaccurate than other memories because of the amount of time we spend thinking about them |
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What experiment demonstrates flashbulb memory errors? |
Neisser & Harsh: college students interviewed after Challenger explosion; 5 years later their confidence was high but there were many inaccuracies in their reports |
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What were the results of Talarico & Rubin's experiment? |
Tested people on their memories of 9/11 & found that these flashbulb memories decayed at the same rate as normal memories, but that people's beliefs of these memories stayed the same |
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What is the narrative rehearsal hypothesis? |
Says that repeated viewing/hearing of an event introduces errors into memory and then memory is restored with those errors, leading people to end up with a completely different memory than they originally had, but unaware of it |
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What parts of autobiographical memory are similar to and different from general memories? |
Similaritities: Importance of rehearsal Formation of generalized schemata Potential for intrusion errors & susceptibility to misinformation Differences: Role of emotion in shaping memories |
