Cognitive Psychology

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Bartlett

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Investigated the role of schemata in memory; concluded that memory is largely a reconstructive process

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Cattell

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Divided intelligence into fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence and looked at how they change throughout the lifespan

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Chomsky

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Distinguished between the surface structure and deep structure of a sentence; studied transformational rules that could be used to transform one sentence into another

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Collins and Loftus

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Devised the spreading activation model of semantic memory

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Craik and Lockhart

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Developed the levels-of-processing theory of memory as an alternative to the stage theory of memory

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Ebbinghaus

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Studied memory using nonsense syllables and the method of savings; developed the forgetting curve

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Gardner

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Proposed a theory of multiple intelligences that divides intelligence into seven different types, all of which are equally important; traditional IQ tests measure only two of the seven types

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Guilford

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Devised divergent thinking test to measure creativity

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Kahneman and Tversky

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Investigated the use of heuristics in decision making; studied the availability heuristic and the representativeness heuristic

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Loftus

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Studied eyewitness memory and concluded that our memories can be altered by presenting new information or by asking misleading questions

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Luchins

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Used the water-jar problem to study the effect of mental sets on problem solving

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Maccoby and Jacklin

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Found support for gender differences in verbal ability

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McClelland and Rumelhart

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Suggested that the brain processes information using parallel distributed processing (PDP)

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Miller

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Found that the capacity of short-term memory is seven (plus or minus two) items

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Paivio

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Proposed dual-code hypothesis

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Smith, Shoben, and Rips

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Devised the semantic feature-comparison model of semantic memory

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Spearman

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Suggested that individual differences in intelligence were largely due to differences in amount of a general factor called g and a specific factor called s

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Sperling

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Studied the capacity of sensory memory using the partial-report method

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Sternberg

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Proposed triarchic theory that divides intelligence into three types: componential, experiential, and contextual

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Thurstone

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Used factor analysis to study primary mental abilities - factors more specific than g, but more general than s

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Whorf

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Hypothesized that language determines how reality is perceived

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Fluid Intelligence

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Increases throughout childhood and adolescence, levels off in young adulthood, and begins a steady decline with advanced age (Cattell)

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Crystallized Intelligence

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Increases throughout the lifespan (Cattell)

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Phonemes

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The smallest sound units

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Morphemes

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The smallest units of meaning

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Syntax

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The grammatical arrangement of words and sentences

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Semantics

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The meanings of words and sentences

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Surface Structure

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The actual order of words in a sentence (Chomsky)

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Deep Structure

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An underlying form that specifies the meaning of the sentence (Chomsky)

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Transformational Rules

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Tell us how we can change from one sentence form to another (e.g., from an active voice to a passive voice) (Chomsky)

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Whorfian Hypothesis

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The hypothesis that language determines how reality is perceived

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Mental Sets

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Tendency to keep repeating solutions that worked in other situations

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Functional Fixedness

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The inability to use a familiar object in an unfamiliar way

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Divergent Thinking

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Attempting to produce as many creative answers to a question as possible

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Heuristics

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Shortcuts and rules of thumb we can use in making decisions

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Availability Heuristic

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Making decisions about frequencies based upon how easy it is to imagine the items involved

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Representativeness Heuristic

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Categorizing things on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical image of the category

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Base-Rate Fallacy

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Ignoring the numerical information about the items being referred to when categorizing them

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Zeigarnik Effect

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The tendency to remember incomplete tasks better than completed tasks

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Semantic Verification Task

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Method used to investigate the organization of semantic memory

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Spreading Activation Model

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Semantic memory organized into map of interconnected concepts; the key is the distance between the concepts

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Semantic Feature-Comparison Model

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Semantic memory contains feature lists of concepts; the key is the amount of overlap in the feature lists of the concepts

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Procedural Memory

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Type of long-term memory concerned with remembering how to do things

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Declarative Memory

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Type of long-term memory concerned with remembering explicit information. Further divided into semantic memory (general knowledge) and episodic memory (events)

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Recall

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Reproducing information you have previously been exposed to

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Recognition

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Realizing that a certain stimulus event is one you've seen or heard before

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Generation-Recognition

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An attempt to explain why you can usually recognize more than you can recall; model suggests that recall involves the same mental process involved in recognition plus another process not required for recognition

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Recency Effect

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Words presented at the end of a list are remembered best

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Primacy Effect

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Words presented at the beginning of a list are remembered second-best

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Clustering

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When asked to recall a list of words, people tend to recall words belonging to the same category

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Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval

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Three mental processes involved in memory