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95 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Who created the multi-store model of memory? |
Atkinson and Schiffrin 1968 |
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name the three parts to the multi store memory model |
sensory memory short term memory long term memory |
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how long is iconic information held for? |
0.5 secs |
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how long is echoic information held for? |
2-3 secs |
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capacity |
the amount of information that can be held in a store |
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duration |
how long the information can be stored for |
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encoding |
when informatio that has been taken in is changed so it can be stored |
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displacement |
when neew information pushes older information out |
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capacity of the SM? |
very small |
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studies looking at capacity in the STM? |
Miller 1956 Jacobs 1890 |
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what did Miller 1956 do? |
showed people can remember 7+/-2 pieces of information information is put into chunks to help remember it |
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AO2 for Miller 1956? |
+ Supported by Jacobs Considered improved - chunking
- Individual diiferences - some people just better at remembering Lacks mundane realism
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Capacity of the LTM? |
Unlimited |
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studies for encoding in the STM? |
Conrad 1964 |
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what did Conrad 1964 do? |
sound matters find out if iconic information was encoded into sound on the way to memory ppts shown set of constanants for around 3/4 of a second and asked to recall them letters that sounded the same were mixed up |
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what did Jacobs 1890 do? |
1. investigated whether numbers or letters are remembered more easily - serial digit span 2. ppts presented with series of vowels at half second intervals and the same with numbers 3. average digit span just over 9 4. average letter span just over 7 5. as we get older we becoming better at remembering both |
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AO2 for Conrad 1964? |
+ supported by Baddeley
- lacks mundane realism |
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AO2 of Jacobs 1890? |
+ supported by Miller 1956
- lacks mundane realism individual differences may affect results |
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study for encoding in LTM? |
Baddeley 1966 |
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what did Baddeley 1966 do? |
showed ppts a sequence of 10 words not allowed to rehearse some acoustically similar, some semantically similar recall after 20 mins encoded semantically |
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duration of the SM? |
iconic = 0.5 secs echoic = 2-3 secs |
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study for duration of STM? |
Peterson and Peterson 1959 |
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what did Peterson and Peterson 1959 do? |
24 ppts heard constanant trigrams through headphones count backwards in 3's no rehearsal 18s = below 5% 0s = over 90% |
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AO2 for Peterson and Peterson 1959? |
- only 24 students all uni students lacks mundane realism all ppts from one uni loss of info could be due to capacity and not duration |
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study for duration in the LTM? |
Bahrick et al 1975 |
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what did Bahrick et al do? |
asked 2 groups of people who had left school a differrent number fo years ago to identify people in their year 3 main tasks 1. free recall 2. photo recognition 3. name recognition |
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name the 3 parts of the working memeory model |
1. central executive 2. phonological loop 3. visuo-spatial sketchpad |
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name the 2 subsectors of the phonological loop |
phonological store articulatory loop |
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what does the central executive do? |
controls activity of the working memory, others are slaves to it and it is modlaity free |
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what is the phonogical loop? |
an auditory system that has two subdivisons that store verbal information |
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what does the phonological store do? |
deals with perception of sound in particular speech |
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what does the articulatory loop do? |
linked to speech production and uses a verbal rehearsal system so verbal material is decayed |
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what does the visuo-spatial sketchpad do? |
organises information virtually like on a piece of paper |
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AO2 for the working memory model? |
+ supported by farah et al who examined barain damaged people and found that LH (a patient) was good at spatial tasks but not at visual imagery tasks showing they need seperate sysytems like the model suggests dual tasks - the model suggests that if perform tasks simultaneously that require the same system, performance will suffer which was proved by B+H
- central executive has not been very studied connection between WMM and LTM is unclear |
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dual task study? |
Baddeley and Hitch 1976 |
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what did Baddeley and Hitch 1976 do? |
find out if performance suffered if one store was occupied by two tasks |
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how does the method of loci work?
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advantages to the method of loci?
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- uses two codes so memory is stronger - research has shown it improves memory - can be developed and improved |
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what is an acronym?
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a word formed out of the first letters of a string of other words which are difficult to associate. another kind is where phrases are formed out of the first letters of words. |
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what is narrative chaining?
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a story or narrative is made up connecting the pieces of information together in a chain meaning items are the trigger for the next one |
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positives about narrative chaining?
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-research has shown it is good for improving retention - interaction between items makes it more effective |
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what is the keyword technique? |
there are 3 stages - acoustic : pronunciation is a recognised sound - visual image : combining the 2 words and forming an image link to the key word - rehearsal : image is rehearsed to commit it to memory |
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name the 2 types of cues
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state dependency |
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what are retrieval cues? |
Retrieval cues are stimuli that assist in memory retrieval. In other words, retrieval cues help you access memories stored in long-term memory and bring them to your conscious awareness. The presence of retrieval cues can make recalling memories much easier.
Retrieval cues can be external, such as the smell of a lit candle that reminds you of your grandmother's cinnamon apple pie. Retrieval cues can also be internal, such as feelings of sadness that remind you of when you broke up with your significant other. |
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what is state dependency?
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the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed
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one strategy for improving memory is 'pay attention and develop understanding'. how does it work?
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- continue to develop understanding and it is encoded semantically into the long term memory |
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one strategy for improving memory is elaborate rehearsal'. how does it work?
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like in the multi-store model of memory, memories remain for a short period of time but if we rehearse this information we can hold it for longer |
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factors affecting the accuracy of eye witness testimony?
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consequentiality misleading info leading questions anxiety schema individual differences |
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EWT : anxiety
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- Loftus et al - 'weapon focus effect' - Yerkes Dodson's Law |
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EWT : misleading info and leading questions
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people's accuracy can be altered if wrong info is provided or misleading questions asked |
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EWT : age |
- young children are susceptible to 3 things - suggestibility - language abilities - memory processes - elderly can also be inaccurate |
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what 3 things are young children susceptible to in EWT? |
language abilities memory processes |
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EWT : consequentiality [study] |
- Foster et al 1994 - when ppts are influenced by the implications their decision has |
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EWT : individual differences [study] |
- Tomes and Katz 1997 - some people are just generally better at recalling information |
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EWT : schema [studies] |
- Lindsey et al 2004 - when your mind sees what you expect to see |
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Foster et al 1994 [EWT consequentiality] |
tried to see if witnesses were more likely to be accurate of they believed what they said had real consequences ppts were shown a film of a bank robbery and half were told it was real and the other half weren't ppts who believed it was real were more accurate |
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Tomes and Katz 1997 [EWT individual differences] |
suggested that people who have the following characteristics are more likely to accept misleading information: - poorer recall of the event - score high on measures of imagery vividness - high score on measures of empathy |
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Tukey and Brewer 2003 [EWT schema] |
wanted to test the effect of people's schema on what they see they did this by seeing what people thought a bank robbery would look like, what was in the 'bank robbery schema' they showed participants a clip of a bank robbery that contained 3 types of information: - things that fitted with the schema (male, carrying a bag) - were the opposite of schema (men didn't carry guns) - were irrelevant to schema (the men wore hats) the ppts were asked what they remembered straight after watching the video and then multiple times over 12 weeks they found that the information that was best remembered were the things that fitted with the schema and the thing that were the opposite and they forgot things that were irrelevant to schema |
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Ceci et al 2000 [EWT suggestibility in children] |
it was argues that the memories of 3 to 5 year olds were made faster and therefore were weaker than those of older children |
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Warren et al 2005 [EWT suggestibility in children] [2 experiments] |
gave children and adults a story to read and then asked them 20 questions of which 15 were misleading. they found that children were more influenced by the questions that adults were. in a second experiment the ppts were told that the questions were hard and that they might get some wrong. in this one the effect of the misleading questions was reduced in both adults and children. |
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Goodman and Schaaf 1997 [EWT language abilities in children] |
it was found that the more complex the question the more likely the child was to get it wrong |
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Goodman and Reed 1986 [EWT memory processes in children] |
conducted an experiment with 3 y/o, 4 y/o and adults in which they played a game with an unfamiliar male researcher. it was found that whilst the 3 y/o remembered less information it was no less accurate than the adults or 6 y/o |
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[EWT memory processes in children] |
it was found that the recall of the 8 y/o was less detailed but just as accurate as the older children but they did embellish and exaggerate more however |
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Cohen and Falkner 1989 [EWT misleading information in elderly] |
later all ppts were tested on their memory of the clip and it was found the elderly were more likely to be influenced by the incorrect information. |
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Coxon and Valentine 1997 [EWT memory processes in elderly and children] |
showed ppts a recording of a staged crime. both young children and elderly were less accurate in their recall than young adults |
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the sensory memory receives and stores information from the __________________ through our _______________. an _____________ _______________ selects what goes through for further processing.
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senses attention mechanism |
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STM holds information the individual is thinking about at the time. prefers to encode __________________ and memories can be lost as _____________ is short.
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duration |
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LTM is where memories are stored for a long period of time. encoded in terms of _________________ (__________________) rather than _____________________. the capacity is ___________. |
meaning semantically acoustically unlimited |
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multi store model of memory [evaluation] |
- exaggerates importance of rehearsal (Shallice and Warrington 1970 showed brain damage patients could have LTM memories despite having no STM) - suggests there is only one LT store (Tulvig 1989 made a distinction between episodic and semantic memory) - many features are supported by studies - offers explanation for serial position effect |
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what is episodic memory as proposed by Tulvig 1989?
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episodic memory is the ability to consciously recollect previous experiences from memory (e.g., recalling a recent family trip to Disney World)
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what is semantic memory as proposed by Tulvig 1989?
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semantic memory is the ability to store more general knowledge in memory (e.g., the fact that Disney World is in Florida)
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what is the serial position effect?
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Experiments show that when participants are presented with a list of words, they tend to remember the first few and last few words and are more likely to forget those in the middle of the list.
This is known as the serial position effect. The tendency to recall earlier words is called the primary effect; the tendency to recall the later words is called the recency effect. |
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Murdock 1962
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he found that the probability that the word was recalled depended on its serial position. |
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Report everything |
Interviewee is encouraged to recall everything they can remember even if it seems irrelevant |
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Reinstate the context |
Interviewee returns mentally to the situation Sometimes the exact conditions are recreated - possibly by recalling environment and mood defore during and after the event |
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Change the sequence |
Interviewee asked to recall the sequence of events in a different order Ensure no important details are skipped and fills in gaps |
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Change perspective |
Interviewee recalls events from another perspective Encouraged to only recall what they actually know - not to be over imaginative |
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Strengths of the cognitive interview |
- relatively little training needed : geisman et al 1986 - 35% more correct info can be obtained with brief guidance, without loss of accuracy - Stein and Memon 2006 : cognitive interview produces more recall with at least as good accuracy compared to the standard interview, even in challenging environments such as developing countries |
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Geiseiman et al 1986 cognitive interview |
35% more correct information can be obtained with breif guidance without loss of memory |
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Stein and Memon 2006 |
Cognitive interview produces more recall with at least as good accuracy compared to the standard interview even in challenging environments such as developing countries |
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Weaknesses of cognitive interview |
- Milne and Bull 1999 : difficult to assess their interview competance as they're not just following a set of questions - Eysenck and Keane 2005 : small increase in errors during recall with cognitive interview , doesn't help with recognition of culprit eg in a line up and less effective as time between event and interview increases |
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Milne and Bull 1999 |
Difficult to assess interviwers competence as they're not just following set of questions |
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Eysenck and Keane 2005 |
Small increase in errorous recall with cognitive interview Doesn't help with recognition of culprit I.e. in a line up Less effective as time between event and interview increases |
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Baddeley and Hitch 1976 procedure |
Ppts had to do 2 tasks One was they were shown two statements a and b in different orders and asked whether the order they appeared in was correct or not This task was combined with one of three: Ppts had to repeat the the the to occupy articulatory loop Ppts had to say rbadom digits out loud Ppts not required to do anything else |
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Baddeley and Hitch 1976 findings |
1+1 and 1+3 performance didn't suffer 1+2 performance suffered significantly |
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Loftus and Palmer 1974 |
Showed a series of car crash videos to 45 students and asked them to fill in a questionnaire with a hidden question How fast was the car travelling when they ......... into each other? Space filled with smashed, collided, bumped, hot, contacted Ppts split into 5 groups each received a different word |
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Loftus and Palmer 1974 findings |
The more severe the word the higher the estimated speed Smashed - 40.8 mph Contacted - 31.8 mph |
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Loftus and Palmer 1974 (2) |
Similar experiment but with 150 students Only 3 groups Hit, smashed and not asked about speed Ppts asked question a week later : did you see any broken glass? Non in the film |
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Loftus and Palmer 1974 (2) findings |
Severity of word affected estimate speed Broken glass Smashed 32% Hit 14% Control 12% |
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Loftus and Palmer 1974 evaluation |
Well controlled Matched ppts Lacks ecological validity All uni students |
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Baddeley, Thomson and Buchanan 1975 phonological loop |
Brief visual presentations of word lists and asked ppts to recall them in serial order One condition they consisted of 5 words that were 1 syllable Second condition consisted of 5 polysllabic words Found short words recalled better -word length effect Capacity of loop determined by length of time it takes to say the word rather than number of items Estimated it to be 1.5 secs |
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Baddeley, Thomson and Buchanan 1975 evaluation |
Lab experiment Well controlled Shorter words more familiar |
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Baddeley, Grant, Wright and Thomson 1973 Visio spatial |
Ppts had to follow light around while imagining looking at an angular block capital letter h t e f Asked to say yes when they got to angle and it included bottom or top line and no when it didn't Ppts found it hard |
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Baddeley 1966 central executive |
Ppts had to generate a random string of digits by pressing keyboards Whilst doing this they had to do one of the folllowing Recite the alphabet Counting from one Alternating between numbers and letters
Number sequence a lot less random with condition 3 |
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Loftus et al 1987 |
Monitored the gaze of ppts and found that when shown a film of a crime they tended to focus their gaze on the gun used in the robbery When questioned later it was found that these ppts were less able to recall details of the event and less able to identify the robber than those who saw a clip without a gun Weapon focus effect |
