Cognitive Psych 3

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a system of communication using sounds or symbols that enables us to express our feelings , thoughts, ideas, and experiences (hierarchical, rules)

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language

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the field concerned with the psychological study of language (comprehension, speech production, acquisition)

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psycholinguistics

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all of the words that a person understands--the person's vocabulary

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lexicon

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the shortest segment of speech that, if changed, changes the meaning of the word

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phoneme

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the smallest unit of language that has a definable meaning or a grammatical function

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morpheme

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when a phoneme in a word is heard, even though it is obscured by a noise, such as a cough. This typically occurs when the word is part of a sentence

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phonemic restoration effect

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the process of perceiving individual words from the continuous flow of the speech signal

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speech segmentation

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the relative usage of words in a particular language

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word frequency

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the phenomenon of faster reading time for high-frequency words compared to low frequency words

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word frequency effect

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a procedure in which a person is asked to decide as quickly as possible whether a particular stimulus is a word or a nonword

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lexical decision task

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when a word can have more than one meaning

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lexical ambiguity

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priming that involves the meaning of words. Typically occurs when a word is followed by another word with a similar meaning

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lexical priming

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the meanings of words and sentences

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semantics

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the rules for combining words into sentences

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syntax

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the mental grouping of words in a sentence into phrases (determines meaning)

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parsing

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sentences that are ambiguous because they can be parsed in more than one way

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syntactic ambiguity

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the mechanism for determining the meaning of a sentence (language-analysis device or sentence-analyzing mechanism)

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parser

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the approach to parsing that emphasizes the role of syntax in determining parsing

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syntax-first approach to parsing

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when a person encounters a new word, the parser assumes that this word is part of the current phrase

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late closure

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a sentence in which the meaning that seems to be implied at the beginning of the sentence turns out to be incorrect, based on information that is presented later in the sentence

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garden-path sentence

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the approach to parsing that takes into account all information--both semantic and syntactic--to determine parsing as a person reads a sentence. This approach assigns more weight to semantics than does the syntax-first approach

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interactionist approach to parsing

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the representation of a text or story in a reader's mind so that information in one part of the text or story is related to information in another part

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coherence

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the process by which readers create information during reading that is not explicitly stated in the text

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inference

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an inference that connects an object or person in one sentence to an object or person in another sentence

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anaphoric inferences

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an inference about tools or methods that occurs during reading or listening to speech

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instrumental inferences

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an inference that results in the conclusion that the events described in one clause or sentence were caused by events that occurred in a previous sentence

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causal inferences

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a mental representation of what a text is about

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situation model

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error made while speaking, often involving exchanging sounds of words in a sentence or using incorrect sounds or words. Sometimes called "slip of the tongue"

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speech errors

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speech errors that, according to Freud, are caused by unconscious motivations

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Freudian slips

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a type of speech error that involves exchanging phonemes between words, such as saying "fleaky squoor" instead of squeaky floor

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phoneme exchanges

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when people make speech errors in which phonemes of the same type replace one another, so consonants replace consonants and vowels replace vowels

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consonant-vowel rule

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speech error in which one word in a sentence is exchanged with another word in the sentence

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word exchanges

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when one word replaces another to cause a speech error, the same syntactic categories are used. Nouns replace nouns, and verbs replace verbs

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syntactic category rule

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a speech error in which an incorrect word is often substituted for the correct word in a sentence. Often related to knowledge that a speaker brings to a situation

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word substitution

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a speaker should construct sentences so that they contain both given information (information that the listener already knows) and new information (information that the listener is hearing for the first time)

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given-new contract

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occurs when hearing a statement with a particular syntactic construction increases the chances that a statement that follows will be produced with the same construction

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syntactic priming

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the idea that the nature of language in a particular culture can affect the way people in that culture think

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Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

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it is difficult to discriminate between two stimuli that are within a category, and it is easier to discriminate between two stimuli that are in different categories

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categorical perception

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a situation that occurs when there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal state and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle

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problem

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a problem that has correct answer. There are actually procedures that, when applied correctly, will lead to a solution

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well-defined problems

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a problem in which it is difficult to specify a clear goal state or specific operators (many real-life problems)

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ill-defined problem

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the process of changing a problem's representation. According to the Gestalt psychologists, this is the key mechanism of problem solving

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restructuring

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sudden realization of a problem's solution

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insight

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people's tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution

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fixation

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an effect that occurs when the ideas a person has about an object's function inhibit the person's ability to use the object for a different function

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functional fixedness

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a problem first described by Duncker in which a person is given a number of objects and is given the task of mounting a candle on a wall so it can burn without dripping wax on the floor. The problem was used to study functional fixedness.

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candle problem

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a problem first described by Maier in which a person is given the taks of attaching two strings together that are too far apart to be reached at the same time. This task was devised to illustrate the operation of functional fixedness

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two-string problem

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mental set that occurs because of what a person experiences while trying to solve a problem

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situationally produced mental set

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a problem first described by Luchins that illustrates how mental set can influence the strategies that people use to solve a problem

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water-jug problem

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conditions at the beginning of the problem

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initial state

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condition at the end of the problem

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goal state

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a problem involving moving discs from one set of pegs to another set. It has been used to illustrate the process involved in means-end analysis

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tower of Hanoi problem

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in problem solving, permissible moves that can be made toward a problem's solution

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operators

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in problem solving, the various conditions that exist along the pathways between the initial and goal states

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intermediate state

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the initial state, goal state, and all the possible intermediate states for a particular problem

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problem space

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a problem-solving strategy in which the goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal state. This is achieved by working to achieve subgoals that move the process of solution closer to the goal

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means-end analysis

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in the means-end analysis approach to problem solving, goals that create intermediate states that move the process of solution closer to the goal

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subgoals

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a problem involving acrobats that is similar to the Tower of Hanoi problem. Used to illustrate how the way a problem is stated can influence its difficulty

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acrobat problem

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a modification of the acrobat problem that is used to show how the way a problem is stated can influence its difficulty

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reverse acrobat problem

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a problem that has been used to study how the statement of a problem influences a person's ability to reach a solution

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mutilated-checker board problem

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a procedure in which participants are asked to say out loud what they are thinking while doing a problem. This procedure is used to help determine a person's thought processes as they are solving a problem

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think-aloud protocols

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drawing a comparison in order to show a similarity between two different things

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analogy

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the use of analogies as an aid to solving problems. Typically, a solution to one problem, the source problem, is presented that is analogous to the solution to another problem, the target problem

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analogical problem solving

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a problem or story that is analogous to the target problem and which therefore provides information that can lead to a solution to the target problem

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source problem

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a problem to be solved. In analogical problem solving, solution of this problem can become easier when the problem solver is exposed to an analogous source problem or story

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target problem

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a problem posed by Duncker that involves finding a way to destroy a tumor by radiation, without damaging other organs in the body. The problem has been widely used to study the role of analogy in problem solving

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radiation problem

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specific elements that make up a problem

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surface features

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the underlying principle of a problem

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structural features

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a technique in which people compare two problems that illustrate a principle. This technique is designed to help people discover similar structural features for cases or problems

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analogical encoding

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participants in psychological experiments tend to focus on surface features in analogy problems, whereas people in the real world frequently use deeper, more structural features

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analogical paradox

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a method in which people are observed to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations. This technique has been used to study the use of analogy in a number of different settings, wuch as laboratory meetings of a university research group, and design brainstorming sessions in an industrial research and development department

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in-vivo problem-solving research

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person who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing application of that learning, has become acknowledged as being extermely skilled or knowledgeable about that field

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experts

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thinking that is open-ended and for which there are a large number of potential solutions

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divergent thinking

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thinking that works toward finding a solution to a specific problem that usually has a correct answer

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convergent thinking

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when presenting a sample, design influences the creation of new designs

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design fixation

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a technique developed by Finke to train people to think creatively

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creative cognition

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cognitive processes by which people start with information and come to conclusions that go beyond that information

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reasoning

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reasoning that involves syllogisms in which a conclusion logically follows from premises

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deductive reasoning

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a series of three statements: two premises followed by a conclusion. The conclusion can follow from the premises based on rules of logic

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syllogisms

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reasoning in which a conclusion follows from a consideration of evidence. This conclusion is stated as being probably true, rather than definitely true, as can be the case for the conclusions from deductive reasoning

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inductive reasoning

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making choices between alternatives

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decisions

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the first two statements in a syllogism

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premises

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a syllogism in which the premises and conclusion describe the relationship between two categories by using statements that begin with All, No, or Some

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categorical syllogism

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the final statement in a syllogism, which follows from the two premises

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conclusion

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a situation that occurs in syllogisms when the conclusion follows logically from the premises

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valid

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the idea that the words All, Some, and No in the premises of a syllogism create an overall "mood" or "atmosphere" that can influence the evaluation of the validity of the conclusion. According to this idea, two "All's" suggests an "all" conclusion, one or two "Some's" suggests a "some" conclusion, and one or two "No's" suggests a "No" conclusion

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atmosphere effect

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the idea that if a syllogism's conclusion is true or agrees with a person's beliefs, this increases the likelihood that the syllogism will be judged to be valid. Also, if the conclusion is viewed as false, this increases the likelihood that the syllogism will be judged as invalid.

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belief bias

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in reasoning, this is a specific situation that is represented in a person's mind that can be used to help determine the validity of syllogisms in deductive reasoning

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mental model

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syllogisms with two premises and a conclusion, like categorical syllogisms, but the first premise is an "If...then..." statement

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conditional syllogism

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in a conditional syllogism, the term "p" in the conditional premise "If p, then q"

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antecedent

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in a conditional syllogism, the term "q" in the conditional premise "If p, then q"

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consequent

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occurs in a conditional syllogism of the following form: If p, then q; p occurs; therefore q occurs. The antecedent, p, is affirmed in the second premise. This is a valid form of syllogism.

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affirming the antecedent

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occurs in a conditional syllogism of the following form: If p, then q; q does not occur; Therefore p does not occur. The consequent, q, is denied in the second premise. This is a valid form of syllogism.

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denying the consequent

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occurs in a conditional syllogism of the following form: If p, then q; q occurs; therefore, p occurs. This is an invalid form of conditional syllogism.

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affirming the consequent

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occurs in a conditional syllogism of the following form: If p, then q; p does not occur; Therefore q does not occur. This is an invalid form of conditional syllogism.

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denying the antecedent

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a conditional-reasoning task involving four cards that was developed by Wason. Various versions of this problem have been used to determine mechanisms that determine the outcomes of conditional-reasoning tasks

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Wason four-card problem

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the reasoning principle that to test a rule, it is necessary to look for situations that falsify the rule

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falsification principle

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a way of thinking about cause and effect in the world that is learned as part of experiencing every day life

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pragmatic reasoning schema

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a pragmatic reasoning schema that states that if a person satisfies condition A, then they get to carry out action B. This has been used to explain the results of the Wason four-card problem.

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permission schema

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based on the idea that many properties of our minds can be traced to the evolutionary principles of natural selection

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evolutionary perspective on cognition

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an important aspect of human behavior is the ability for two people to cooperate in a way that is beneficial to both people. According to the evolutionary perspective on cognition, application of this theory can lead to the conclusion that detecting cheating is an important part of the brain's cognitive makeup. This idea has been used to explain the results of the Wason four-card problem

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social exchange theory

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we base our judgments of the frequency of events on what events come to mind

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availability heuristic

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a correlation between two events that appears to exist, when in reality there is no correlation or it is weaker than it is assumed to be

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illusory correlation

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an oversimplified generalization about a group or class of people that often focuses on the negative

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stereotypes

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the probability that an event A comes from class B can be determined by how well A resembles the properties of class B

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representativeness heuristic

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the relative proportions of different classes in a population. Failure to consider these can often lead to errors of reasoning.

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base rate

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the probability of the conjunction of two events (such as feminist and bank teller) cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents (feminist alone or bank teller alone)

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conjunction rule

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the larger the number of individuals that are randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population

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law of large numbers

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the tendency to selectively look for information that conforms to our hypothesis and to overlook information that argues against it

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confirmation bias

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a model designed to explain how people's conceptions of different categories influences the strength of inductive arguments

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similarity coverage model

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the inductive argument with the most typical example of a category in the premise is the strongest argument

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typicality principle

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the inductive argument with the greatest coverage of a category is stronger

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diversity principle

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the idea that people are basically rational, so if they have all of the relevant information, they will make a decision that results in the maximum expected utility

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economic utility theory

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an approach to decision making that states that optimal decision making occurs when the outcome of the decision causes the maximum expected utility, where utility refers to outcomes that are desirable

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utility

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models that people create about what will happen following different decisions

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mental simulations

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when people focus their attention on just one aspect of a situation and ignore other aspects of a situation that may be important, this can lead to a lack of accuracy in predicting emotional reactions to events

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focusing illusion

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procedure in which a person must take steps to choose a course of action. For example, choosing to be an organ donor.

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opt-in procedure

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procedure in which a person must take steps to avoid taking a particular course of action. For example, choosing not to be an organ donor.

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opt-out procedure

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a decision-making strategy that is governed by the idea of avoiding risk. Often used when a problem is stated in terms of gains

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risk-aversion strategy

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a decision-making strategy that is governed by the idea of taking risks. Often used when a problem is stated in terms of losses.

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risk-taking strategy

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occurs when decisions are influenced by how a decision is stated

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framing effect

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difficulty in switching from one behavior to another, which can hinder a person's ability to solve problems that require flexible thinking. This is observed in cases in which the prefrontal cortex has been damaged.

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perseveration

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a new approach to decision making which combines approaches from the fields of psychology, neuroscience, and economics

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neuroeconomics

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a game in which a proposer is given a sum of money and makes an offer to a responder as to how this money should be split between them. The responder must choose to accept or reject the offer. The game has been used to study people's decision making strategies.

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ultimatum game

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the tendency to do nothing to avoid having to make a decision that could be interpreted as causing harm

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omission bias