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95 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are we studying in chapter 3?
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Sensation vs. Perception
Visual Sensation & Perception Visual Sensory Memory Pattern Recognition Object Recognition & Agnosia Auditory Sensation & Perception Auditory Sensory Memory |
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What is sensation? what is one aspect of sensation and how is it defined?
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Sensation—reception of physical stimulation from the environment, converting physical energy into neural signals
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What is perception?
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Perception—interpreting and understanding sensory information
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What is the retina and what does it initiate?
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The layer of cells at the back of the eye covered with the rods and cones.
It initiates the process of visual sensation and perception |
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What are the parts of the retina?
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rods and cones
bipolar cells ganglion cells |
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What is the fovea, where is it, and what is it composed of?
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The highly sensitive area of the retina responsible for precise, focused vision.
Composed largely of cones. |
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Describe the visual pathway
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Rods & Cones
Bipolar cells Ganglion cells Optic Nerve |
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What are rods and cones?
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The back layer of neurons of the retina and are the neurons stimulated by light.
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What are the biploar cells?
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Patterns of neural firing from the rods and cones are forwarded to this second layer of neurons.
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What are the ganglion cells?
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Collected messages from the bipolar cells are passed along to the third layer of neurons to form the optic nerve.
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Describe the relationship of rods and cones to bipolar cells. This means that
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Rods = many to one bipolar
Cones = few to one bipolar information is compressed, but less so for the cones |
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Rods are for... whereas cones are for...
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dim light, focused vision
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How do the eyes transmit visual information to the brain? What is this cortex called?
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Each eye transmits visual information to the occipital lobes. The visual cortex.
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Describe how vision works
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Rods & Cones Bipolar Ganglion, Optic nerve,
Optic Chiasm Thalamus Occipital Lobe/Visual Cortex |
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What does the thalamus do?
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It is the relay station that sends information to certain parts of the brain
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Name and define the two visual pathways
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2 Visual Pathways:
Dorsal = “Where” pathway (locating in space) Ventral = “What” pathway (recognition and identification) |
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what are the regions of the brain?
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frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe, pons, cerebellum, mendula oblongata
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The two visual pathways are an example of
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Parallel processing—simultaneous processing of two different types of information
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What are saccades and what is suppressed and when
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Fast, jerky movements of the eyes from one fixation point to another. Normal visual processing is suppressed during these movements.
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What are fixations?
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Pauses during which eyes are almost stationary and visual information is taken in and processing occurs
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What is change blindness?
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A failure to notice changes in visual stimuli (e.g., photographs) when those changes occur during a saccade.
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What is inattention blindness?
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We sometimes fail to see an object we are looking at directly, even a highly visible one, because our attention is directed elsewhere.
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In order to perceive/process sensory information, we must have... this known as, how long does it last?
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we must have a temporary store to briefly hold it, Also known as iconic memory, Lasts no longer than about 250-500 ms
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Graph of visual sensory memeory
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sensory registers, short term working memory, can go to output or long term, back to short term and output
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what is Sterling conduct and when
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Conducted much of the early research into what information is available when visual information is presented very briefly
1960s |
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What is change blindness?
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A failure to notice changes in visual stimuli (e.g., photographs) when those changes occur during a saccade.
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What is inattention blindness?
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We sometimes fail to see an object we are looking at directly, even a highly visible one, because our attention is directed elsewhere.
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In order to perceive/process sensory information, we must have... this known as, how long does it last?
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we must have a temporary store to briefly hold it, Also known as iconic memory, Lasts no longer than about 250-500 ms
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Graph of visual sensory memeory
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sensory registers, short term working memory, can go to output or long term, back to short term and output
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what is Sperling conduct and when
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Conducted much of the early research into what information is available when visual information is presented very briefly
1960s |
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In Sperling's experiements, what were whole report and partial report? the key to understanding partial report is to remember that
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Whole report—recall as
many items as possible Partial report—a cue indicated which items to recall (e.g., a high tone meant to recall top row), the cue would be presented after the stimulus had been taken away |
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What did sperling find?specicially? what was his conclusion?
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that they would recall more items for the partial report, if there were five or less items, he would remember 100%, whole, 37% and partial, 76%... it is not a capacity issue, more information is available than we are able to report
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What happens to information in Iconic Memory? What did the original research indicate
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decay, interference, and erasure... that it was decay
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What is decay and what causes it?
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The original research indicated that it was a passive process fading of the information
The passage of time causes this |
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What is interference?
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Interference—information presented later prevents or interferes with retrieval from memory
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What is erasure, is it a specific kind of, it is also called
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Erasure—when subsequent information replaces the contents of iconic memory
This is a specific kind of interference Backward masking |
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One study of Masking and Interference/Erasure was done by ... in... what did they do?
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Averbach & Coreill (1961)
Display presented for 50 ms Blank post-exposure field of varying length Partial report cue—one of two visual cues arrow or circle |
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What were Averbach & Coreill (1961)'s results?
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Results for bar cue: (replicated Sperling research)
High performance with short delays of the cue Performance decreased with longer delays Memory duration of 250 ms Results for circle cue: Lower performance Circle erased the memory trace for the letter |
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The effect of the circle cue is an example of
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backward masking
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What is trans-saccadic memory?
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Memory for information across eye movements.
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What is trans-saccadic memory needed for?
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This type of memory is needed to build up a more complete mental representation of the visual world.
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What is trans-saccadic memory NOT based on?
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Retinal coordinates
Spatial coordinates |
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Trans-saccdic memory appears to be based on
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Object files- look up object file in text book
People are tracking (attending to) individual objects in the environment to see where they go and if they change |
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what is focal attention and whose term was it?
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Neisser’s term for the mental process of visual attention such as the mental redirection of attention when the partial report cue is presented.
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How do we recognize information coming from our senses? We can then?
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Sensory memory briefly holds information so that pattern recognition can take place
We can then identify and interact with the information in our environment |
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What are the gesalt group principles?
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Figure Ground, Proximity (Nearness)—Similarity, Closure, Good Continuation—
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what is figure ground?
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Figure Ground—part of an image will be treated as the object and part as background
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What is proximity/nearness?
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Proximity (Nearness)—elements that are near to each other are grouped together
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What is similarity?
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Similarity—elements that have similar features are grouped together
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What is closure?
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Closure—when our perceptual system closes up gaps or missing parts
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For the circles, what was worse- open or closed?
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closed
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remember, iconic memory is not the same as...
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short term memory
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what part of fixation is most important and why
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the first 50 ms, after 50 ms, we don't notice changes
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what is good continuation
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Good Continuation—if an edge is occluded we assume it continues on in a regular way
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What is pattern recognition?
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how we recognize information coming from our senses
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the problem with grouping principles is that...
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they only go so far
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How do we actually recognize something as familiar and identify it-- theories of pattern recognition?
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Template Approach
Feature Detection Pandemonium Connectionism |
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What is the template approach?
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We have stored in memory models of all categorizable patterns
We match template to image to identify it |
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What are the problem with the template approach? this is also known as the
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Problems: we must have an exact match
Great variability in the objects we can recognize High demand on memory to learn, store, and search all possible templates (and their different orientations, distances from us, etc.) problem of invariance, we recognize things even when they vary |
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What is the feature theory? it is better because it
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We store a limited number of elemental features or components that comprise the images we are able to identify
Combining the features results in all possible images we can identify is less demanding on memeory |
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Pandemonium was introduced by whom... in...
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selfridge, 1959
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Describe the levels of pandemonium
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level 1- encoding demon takes a picture and send it into the system
level 2 feature demons-a demon for all possible features-all compare to selves-if they match, they tell-the ones that match the best yell the loudest Level 3-cognitive demons-if all features of a demon are yelling, he'll yell too, the ones that match the best yell loudest Level 4- the decision demon picks the one that yells the loudest |
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what are the important characteristics of pandemonium?
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Feature detection—neurological evidence in cats and monkeys that some neurons respond to simple features (e.g., diagonal lines, etc.)
Parallel processing—all of the demons are working at the same time, trying to identify the pattern Perception is problem solving—visual system must put together “pieces” from our environment and figure out the whole picture |
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what is the Problem with Pandemonium
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Bottom-up only—the entire model is driven by the “data” (the letters on the page)
It doesn’t take into account the influence of context or top-down processing |
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Give an example of how top down processing can influence results?
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Stimuli (such as 13) can be interpreted different depending upon the context
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What is one important aspect of pandemonium that has continued?
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the idea that features are important
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What is connectionist modeling? it uses... to understand... it is designed to... and is comprised of...name the three levels of units
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Connectionist modeling—a theoretical and computational approach to studying cognition; Uses computer modeling and mathematical computations to simulate/understand cognition; A connectionist network is designed to simulate some task (e.g., word recognition) and is comprised of many interconnected units
input, hidden, output |
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What are imput units?
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In a model of a simple connectionist network, input units are basic “cells” that receive inputs from the environment.
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what are hidden units?
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Hidden Units:
This level in the network is completely internal, always one step removed from an input and output. |
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What are output units?
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Output Units:
The units that report the system’s response, say to the question “What is this word?” |
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does the connectionist model use serial or parallel processing?... input units can be likened to
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parallel, feature detectors
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for input units, every single feature is; however, these connections are either
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connected to every single letter, excitatory (positive), or inhibitory (negative)
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thus features will active... while
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letters with that feature while inhibiting letters that don't have that feature Be sure to look at graph on BB
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According to PDP/distributed, what is knowledge and memory?
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the network is our knowledge, memory doesn't have anythign to do with it, the weights reflect knowledge and can be adjusted as we learn
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what are the lateral connection in pdp?
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in one letter is activated it will inhibit other letters horizontally
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What are the advantages of pdp?
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it incorporates context effects- both letters are initially recognized but combinations that don't fit words are inhibited while combinations that do are excited
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What is object recognition by components (RBC) theory? This is done through... defined as?
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The approach to recognizing letters by features can be expanded to objects, we note where lines/components come together and match that pattern to what we have stored in memory, Geons—small number of basic elements that can be combined to form objects we can recognize
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According to RBC, what are the most important components? It is easier to recognize objects when the ... aren't missing
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The edges and how they relate to one another
The vertices—where lines intersect vertices |
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We can learn a lot about the brain by studying people when
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things go wrong
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What is agnosia and why does it occur?
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Agnosia—A deficit in recognizing objects, either because feature patterns cannot be synthesized into a whole or the person cannot then connect a pattern to meaning.
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What is apperceptive agnosia? where is it located?
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Individual features cannot be integrated into a whole; a basic disruption in perceiving patterns.
Impairment in organizing visual sensory information, parietal love right hemisphere |
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What are the shortcomings of RBC?
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uses bottom up process-context effects not built it, we can name whole objects as fast as individual parts (indicates not a two step process)
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What is associative agnosia?
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A person can combine features into a whole but cannot associate the pattern with meaning.
Cannot assign identity |
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Where is the associative agnosia located?
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junction of the temporal and occipital lobe
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Example of associative agnosia? by whom?
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Ratcliff & Newcombe (1982)
could copy anchor could define anchor could not ID anchor could not draw from memory |
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What is prosopagnosia? what is one interesting fact abou it? What does it demonstrate?
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A disruption in face recognition
Specialized cells for faces Demonstrates that object recognition is very complex Different systems for faces and objects |
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Describe the neuropsychology of agnosia
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visual representation, integrating features, object to identity, meaning
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What are the points to take away from the neuropsychology of agnosia?
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detecting features separate from sensing, detecting features is critical to recognizing pattern, process of finding identity and meaning are separate and occur later
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Name the parts of the ear
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outer: ear flap, cannal, hammer; middle: anvil, eardrum, stirrup; inner: auditory nerve, cochlea, eustachian tube, basiliar membrane (inside cochlear)
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how does hearing work?
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sounds waves are converted to mechanical process and then to nerve impulses
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how exactly does hearing work?
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ear flap channels sound waves and sound waves vibrate ear drum, ear drum vibrates stirrup, anvil and hammer (?) (mechanical); rest up against oval window, cochlea, basilar membrane moves as fluid, nerve impulses go along auditory nerve and to the brain
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auditory sensory memory is also known as... define it...
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echoic memory; A brief memory system that receives auditory stimuli and preserves them for some amount of time.
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what test is associated with echoic memory? describe it?
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3-eared man procedure; 3 stimuli provided in 3 different locations, 3 in one year, 3 in other, 3 in both, less than 1 sec stimuli
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how is auditory memory different than visual memory? what does this mean? other language would be
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rather than being spread in space, spread out in time; it means that it must take longer because requires time; very difficult
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What were the results for this procedure?
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Partial report better than whole report
Duration is 2-4 seconds, but varies widely depending on the complexity of the stimuli Auditory trace in sensory memory fades over time Or can be replaced/erased (interference) by other incoming stimuli |
