Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
83 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
What is Cognition?
|
(also called mental activity) describes the acquisition, storage, transformation, and use of knowledge.
|
|
|
What is the cognitive approach?
|
a theoretical orientation that emphasizes people's thought processes and their knowledge
|
|
|
What is empirical evidence?
|
scientific evidence obtained by careful observation and experimentation
|
|
|
What is introspection?
|
carefully trained observes would systematically analyze their own sensations and report them as objectively as possible, under standardized conditions
|
|
|
Who is Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)?
|
An important German psychologist who was the first person to scientifically study human memory. Ebbinghaus examined a variety of factory that might influence performance, such as the amount of time between two presentations of a list of items. He frequently chose nonsene syllable
|
|
|
What is the recency effect?
|
recall is especially accurate for the final items in a series of stimuli.
|
|
|
Who was Mary Whiton Calkins (1862-1930)?
|
reported the phenomenon of the "recency effect" and emphasized that psychologists should study how real people use their cognitive processes in the real world, as opposed to the psychology laboratory
|
|
|
Who was the first woman to be president of the American Psychological Association?
|
Mary Whiton Calkins
|
|
|
Who is William James (1842-1910)?
|
a American central figure in the history of cognitive psychology. James preferred to theorize about our everyday psychological experiences. Best known for his textbook "Principles of Psychology" (1890)
|
|
|
Who is Wilhem Wundt?
|
Founder of psychology, proposed that psychology should study mental processes, using a technique called introspection.
|
|
|
What is behaviorism?
|
Psychology must focus on object, observable reactions to stimuli in the environment, rather than introspection
|
|
|
Who was the most prominent early behaviorist?
|
John B. Watson (1913, USA)
|
|
|
what is the "operational definition"?
|
a precise definition that specifies how a concept is to be measured
|
|
|
what is Gestalt psychology?
|
it emphasizes that we humans have basic tendencies to actively organize what we see; furthermore, the whole is greater than the sum of the parts
|
|
|
define "gestalt"
|
an overall quality that transcends the individual elements
|
|
|
Who was Frederic Bartlett?
|
A British psychologist in the early 1900s who conducted his research on human memory. Bartlett rejected the carefully controlled research of Ebbinghaus. Instead, he used meaningful materials, such as lengthy stories.
|
|
|
What is the "information-processing approach"?
|
a. our mental processes are similar to the operations of a computer
b. information progresses through our cognitive system in a series of stages, one step at a time |
|
|
what is the "Atkinson-Shiffrin model"?
|
it proposes that memory involves a sequence of separate steps; in each step, information is transferred from one storage area to another
|
|
|
What is "sensory memory"?
|
a storage system that records informationfrom each of the senses with reasonable accuracy
|
|
|
What is working memory?
|
it holds only the small amount of information that you are actively using. These memories can be lost within about 30 seconds, unless they are somehow repeated.
|
|
|
What is long-term memory?
|
it has an enormous capacity because it contains memories that are decades old, in addition to memories of events that occurred several minutes ago.
|
|
|
Studies are high in "ecological validity" if what?
|
if the conditions in which the research is conducted are similar to the natural setting where the results will be applied.
|
|
|
What is cognitive neuroscience?
|
it combines the research techniques of cognitive psychology with various methods for assessing the structure and function of the brain
|
|
|
What is social cognitive neuroscience?
|
a new discipline that uses neuroscience techniques to explore the kind of cognitive processes that we use in our interactions with other people
|
|
|
what does the term "brain lesions" refer to?
|
the destruction of an area in the brain, most often by strokes, tumors, blows to the head, and accidents
|
|
|
what is a positron emission tomography (PET scan)?
|
researchers measure blood flow in the brain by injecting the participant with a low dose of a radioactive chemical just before this person works on a cognitive task. This chemical travels through the bloodsteam to the parts of the brain that are activated during the tasks
|
|
|
what is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)?
|
its based on the principle that oxygen-rich blood is an index of brain activity. The research participant reclines with his or her head surrounded by a large, doughnut-shaped magnet. This magnetic field produces changes in the oxygen atoms. A scanning device takes a "photo" of these oxygen atoms while the participant performs a cognitive task.
|
|
|
how fast can an fMRI measure brain activity?
|
it measures brain activity that occurs fairly quickly-- in about 1 second
|
|
|
what is the "event-related potential (ERP) technique"?
|
it records the very brief fluctuations in the brain's electrical activity, in response to a stimulus such as an auditory tone
|
|
|
What is artificial intelligence (AI)?
|
a branch of computer science that seeks to explore human cognitive processes by creating computer models that show "intelligent behavior" and also accomplish the same tasks that humans do
|
|
|
what is the "computer metaphor"?
|
our cognitive processes work like a computer, that is, a complex, multipurpose machine that processes information quickly and accurately.
|
|
|
what is "pure artificial intelligence (pure AI)"?
|
an approuch that designs a program to accomplish a cognitive task as efficiently as possible, even if the computer's processes are completely different from the processes used by humans
|
|
|
what is computer simulation/computer modeling?
|
it attempts to take human limitations into account. The goal of computer simulation is to program a computer to perform a specific cognitive task in the same way that humans actually perform this task
|
|
|
what is the connectionist approach?
|
it argues that cognitive processes can be understood in terms of networks that link together neuron-like units; in addition, many operations can proceed simultaneously--rather than one step at a time. In other words, human cognition is often parallel, not strictly linear
|
|
|
What are two other names that are often used interchangeably with connectionism?
|
"parallel distributed processing (PDP) approach" and the "neural-network approach"
|
|
|
what is the cerebral cortex?
|
the outer layer of the brain that is essential for your cognitive processes
|
|
|
what happens during serial processing?
|
the system must complete one step before it can proceed to the next step in the flowchart.
|
|
|
what is parallel processing?
|
when numerous signals are handled at the same time, rather than serial processing
|
|
|
what is cognitive science?
|
an interdisciplinary field that tries to answer questions about the mind. Cognitive science includes three disciplines we've discussed so far: cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and artificial intelligence
|
|
|
What is bottom-up processing?
|
it emphasizes the importance of information from the stimuli registered on your sensory receptors.
It uses only a low-level sensory analysis of the stimulus |
|
|
What is top-down processing?
|
it emphasizes how our concepts, expectations, and memory influence our cognitive processes
|
|
|
what are "individual differences"?
|
it refers to the systematic variation in the way that groups of people perform on the same cognitive task
|
|
|
what is major depression?
|
a psychological disorder in which feelings of sadness, discouragement, and hopelessness interfere with the ability to perform daily mental and physical functions
|
|
|
What is perception?
|
it uses previous knowledge to gather and interpret the stimuli registered by the senses.
|
|
|
what is object/pattern recognition?
|
when you identify a complex arrangement of sensory stimuli, and you perceive that this pattern is separate from its background
|
|
|
what is the distal stimuls?
|
the actual object that is "out there" in the enviornment
|
|
|
what is your sensory memory?
|
a large-capacity storage system that records information from each of the senses with reasonable accuracy.
|
|
|
what is iconic memory (visual sensory memory)?
|
it preserves an image of a visual stimulus for a brief period after the stimulus has disappeared
|
|
|
what is the primary visual cortex?
|
its located in the occipital lobe of the brain; it is the portion of your cerebral cortex that is concerned with basic processing
|
|
|
what is one important principle in gestalt psychology?
|
humans have basic tendencies to organize what they see; without any effort, we see patterns, rather than random arrangements
|
|
|
what is an ambiguous figure-ground relationship?
|
the figure and the ground reverse from time to time, so that the figure becomes the ground and then becomes the figure again
|
|
|
what are illusory contours (subjective contours)?
|
we see edges even though they are not physically present in the stimmules
|
|
|
what are templates?
|
specific patterns that you have stored in memory
|
|
|
what are feature-analysis theories?
|
they propose a relatively flexible approach, in which a visual stimulus is composed of a small number of characteristics or components
|
|
|
what is a distinctive feature?
|
each visual characteristic in a visual stimulus
|
|
|
what is the recognition-by-components theory?
|
a specific view of an object can be represented as an arrangement of simple 3-D shapes called geons. geons can be combined to form meaningful objects
|
|
|
what is the viewer-centered approach?
|
this approach proposed that we store a small number of views of three-dimensional objects, rather than just one view
|
|
|
what does bottom-up processing emphasize?
|
that the stimulus characteristics are important when you recognize an object
|
|
|
what does top-down processing emphasize?
|
how a person's concepts, expectations, and memory can influence object recognition
|
|
|
What is the word superiority effect?
|
we can identify a single letter more accurately and more rapidly when it appears in a meaningful word than when it appears alone by itself or else in a meaningless string of unrelated items
|
|
|
what is change blindness?
|
we fail to detect a change in an object or a scene
|
|
|
inattentional blindess
|
when we are paying attention to some events in a scene, we may fail to notice when an unexpected but completely visible object suddenly appears
|
|
|
prosopagnosia
|
people cannot recognize human faces visually, though they perceive other objects relatively normally
|
|
|
face-inversion effrect
|
people are much more accurate in identifying upright faces, compared to upside-down faces, a phenomenon called the face-inversion effect
|
|
|
individual differences
|
refers to the systematic variation in the way that groups of people perform on the same cognitive task
|
|
|
schizophrenia
|
do not show intense emotions, may have hallucinations, disordered thinking, and perform poorly on many cognitive tasks
|
|
|
speech perception
|
your auditory system must record the sound vibrations generated by someone you hear talking, then translate these vibrations into a sequence of sounds that you perceive to be speech
|
|
|
phoneme
|
the basic unit of spoken language, such as the sounds a, k, and th. The English language uses between 40 and 45 phonemes, including both vowels and consonants.
|
|
|
coarticulation
|
when you are pronouncing a particular phoneme, your mouth remains in somewhat the same shape it was when you pronounced the previous phoneme
|
|
|
phonemic restoration
|
filling in a missing phoneme, using contextual meaning as a cue
|
|
|
What is the McGurk effect?
|
the influence of visual information on speech perception, when individuals must integrate both visual and auditory information
|
|
|
special mechanism approach
|
humans are born with a specialized device that allows us to decode speech stimuli
|
|
|
phonetic modile (speech module)
|
a special-purpose neural mechanism that specifically process all aspects of speech perception.
|
|
|
general mechanism approaches
|
argure that we can explain speech perception without prposing any special phonetic mudule. believe that humans use the same neural mechanisms to process both speech sounds and nonspeech sounds
|
|
|
attention
|
a concentration of mental activity that allows you to take in a limited portion of the vast stream of information available from both your sensory world and your memory
|
|
|
divided-attention task
|
you try to pay attention to two or more simultaneous messages, responding appropriately to each message
|
|
|
multitask
|
try to accomplish two or more tasks at the same time. it strains the limits of attention, as well as the limits of their working memory and their long-term memory
|
|
|
selective-attention task
|
requires people to pay attention to certain kinds of information, while ignoring other ongoing information
|
|
|
dichotic listening
|
listening to a phone on one ear and a loud nearby conversation with the other ear
|
|
|
cocktail party effect
|
noticing your name is mentioned in a nearby conversation while you paying attention to a different conversation
|
|
|
Stroop effect
|
people take a long time to name the ink color when that color is used in printing an incongruent word; in contrast, they can quickly name that same ink color when it appears as a solid patch of color
|
|
|
emotional Stroop task
|
people are instructed to name the ink color of words that could have strong emotional significance to them
|
|
|
a
|
b
|
