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70 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Lexicon
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"Bucket" for all the words you know
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Critical Period
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First 5-years of life- if children not exposed to language, will make up their own.
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Phoneme
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the basic unit of spoken language, such as the sounds: a, k, and th.
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Morpheme
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the basic unit of meaning. Example: re-, or -ed.
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Syntax
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the grammatical rules that govern how we organize words into sentences. Grammar and syntax are almost synonamous.
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Pragmatics
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How we use language. Explain differently to different audiences. Our knowledge of the social rules that underlie language use.
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Semantics
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The area of psycholinguistics that examines the meanings of words and sentences
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Chomsky's Theory (1975)
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Proposed that language is modular; people have a set of specific linguistic abilities that do not follow the principles of other cognitive processes.
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Cognitive Approach to Linguistics
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Language is not modular. Instead, it is interconnected with other cognitive processes such as working memory
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Deep Structure
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Meaning
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Surface Structure
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What you see
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Cognitive-Functional Approach
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AKA: Usage-Based Linguistics. Emphasizes that the function of human lanuage in everyday life is to communicate meaning to other individuals.
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Active Voice
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The subject is doing the action. (Marc loves Cognitive Psychology.)
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Passive Voice
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The target of the action gets promoted to the subject position. (Cognitive Psychology is loved by Marc).
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Neurolinguistics
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The discipline that examines how the brain processes language
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Aphasia
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A disorder where the person has difficulty communicating cause by damage tot eh speech areas of the brain. Typically caused by a stroke, tumor, or serious infection.
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Broca's Area
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Located toward the front of brain. Damage to Brocas area typically leads to speech that is hesitant, effortful, and grammatically simple.
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Broca's Aphasia
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Primarialy characterized by an expressive-language deficit- or trouble producing language
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Wernicke's Area
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Located towards the back of the brain. Damage to Wernicke's area typically produces serious difficulties in understanding speech, as well as language production that is too wordy and confused.
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Wernicke's Aphasia
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People with Wernicke's Aphasia have such severe receptive-language problems that they cannot understand basic instructions.
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**Compare and contrast the Direct and Indirect Roots and Explain how they relate to the Dual Approach **
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Direct-Access Route
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You recognize this word directly through vision. Used especially if the word has an irregular spelling and cannot be sounded out.
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Indirect-Access Route
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You recognize the words indirectly by sounding out the word. As soon as you see a word, you translate the ink marks on the page into some form of sound, before you can access a word and its meaning.
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Dual-Route Approach
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Argues that the characteristics of the reading material determine whether access is indirect or direct. Also argues that characteristics of the reader determine whether access is indirect or direct.
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3 Components to a Problem
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1. Initial State. 2. Goal State. 3. Obstacle
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Matrices
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Excellent way to keep track of itesms, particularly if the problem is complex and and if the relevant information is categorical
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Diagrams
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Useful when you wanna represent a large amount of information.
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Graph
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Sometimes the most effective kind of diagram for representing visual information during problem solving.
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Situated Cognition
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Our ability to solve a problem is tied into the specific context in which we learned to solve that problem. Argue that an abstract intelligence test or aptitude test often fails to reveal how competent a person would be in solving problems in real-life settings. -----ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY
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Traditional Cognitive Approach to Thinking
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Emphasizes the processes that take place inside an individual person's head.
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Algorithm
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A method that will always produce a solution to the problem, although the process can sometimes be inefficient and unsophisticated. Exhaustive search, trys out all possible answers systematically.
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Heuristic
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More sophisticated method, reduces the possibilities that must be explored to find a solution. "Mental Short Cut."
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Analogy
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Emplying a solutioin to a similar, earlier problem to help you solve a new one. Solving a problem by using previous experience to find a solution. Prominent in creative breakthroughs in domains such as art, politics, science and engineering.
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Means-End Heuristic
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Requires you to identify the "end" you want, and then figure out the "means" you will use to reach those ends. Two main components: 1. You divide the problem into a number of sub-problems/smaller problems. 2. Try to reduce the difference between the initial state and the goal state for each of the sub problems.
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Hill-Climbing Heuristic
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Can be useful when you do not have enough information about your alternatives- when you can only see the immediate next step. Only fallback, the problem solvers must consistently choose the alternative that appears to lead most directly toward the goal. Encourages short-term goals, rather than long term solutions.
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Expertise
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An individual with expertise demonstrates consistently excepitonal performance on represntative tasks for a particular area.
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Functional Fixedness
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Occurs when our top-down processing is overactive; we rely too heavily on our previous concepts, expectations and memory. Functions or uses we assign to an object tend to remain fixed or stable.
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Stereotype Threat
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Stereotypes can influence our beliefs about our own abilities.
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Thought Suppression
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Taking resources away from task/performance
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Insight Problems
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The problem initally seems impossible to solve, but an alternative approach suddenly bursts into your consciousness; you immediately realize that your new solution is correct.
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Noninsight Problems
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Solve the problem gradually, using your memory, reasoning skills, and a routine set of strategies.
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Incubation
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Require you to move away from a problem for a while- the answer pops into your head later.
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Creativity
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A specific take on the area of problem solving. Requires moving from an initial state to a goal state.
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Divergent Production
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The number of different responses made to each test item. Many contemporary researchers also emphasize that creativitiy requires divergent thinking, rather than one single best answer.
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Intrinsic Motivation
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Internal motivator. The motivation to work on a task because you enjoy it.
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Extrinsic Motivation
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The motivation to work on a task, not because you find it enjoyable, but in order to earn a promised reward or to win a competition
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Heuristic
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Mental Shortcut. Not always correct, but has worked for us before.
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Deductive Reasoning
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You are given some specific premises, and you are asked whether those premises allow you to draw a particular conclusion, based on the principles of logic. Provides you with all the information you need to draw a conclusion.
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Syllogism
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A syllogism consists of two statements that we must assume to be true, plus a conclusion. Refer to quantities, using words like: all, none or some.
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Belief-Bias Effect
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Occurs in reasoning when people make udgments based on prior beliefs and general knowledge, rather than on the rules of logic. People make errors when the logic of a reasoning problem conflicts with their background knowledge.
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Flexible thinking
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Learning from past mistakes; being open-minded; being able/wantint to listen to all information.
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Confirmation Bias
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People have a strong tendency to seek out evidence and make decisions that will confirm a hypothesis as opposed to disconfirming it. Looking for evidence to support your opinion.
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Decision Making
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The thought process for assessing and choosing among sever alternatives.
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Representativeness Heuristic
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We believe that random-looking coutcomes are more likely than orderly outcomes.
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Law of Large Numbers
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A large sample is statistically more likely to reflect the true proportions in a population from which they are selected
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Small-Sample Fallacy
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Will often reveal an extreme proportion.
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Availability Heuristic
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You use the availability heuristic when you estimate frequency or probability in terms of how easy it is to think of relevant examples of something. Will rate a probability frequency higher if you have a memory or remember it happening.
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Recency and Availability
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More recent items are more available. We judge recent items to be more likely than they really are.
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Familiarity and Availability
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The familiarity of examples can also produce a distortion in frequency estimation.
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Recognition Heuristic
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Typically operates when you must compare the relative frequency of two categories. If you recognize one category, but not the other, you conclude that the recognized category has the higher frequency.
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*Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic*
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You begin with a first approximation (anchor) and make adjustments to that number on the basis of additonal information. So powerful that it operates even when the anchors are obviously arbitatry or impossibly extreme.
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Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristics in terms of Racism
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Lets suppose that you hold a sterotype about people who belong to a particular group, such as people who live in a region of the US or students who have a particular major. When you meet someone from that group, you often rely on your stereotype in order to create an initial anchor. Then you consider the unique characteristics of that particular individual, and you make some adjustments.
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Framing Effect
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The way something is phrases/framed produces a different reaction.
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Prospect Theory
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Refers to the people's tendencies to think about possible gains as being different from possible losses. 1. When dealing with possible gains, people tend to avoid risks. 2. When dealing with possible losses, people tend to seek risks.
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Hindsight Bias
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Occurs when an event has happened, and we say that the event had been inevitable; we had actually "knew it all along". We often reconstruct the past so that it matches our present knowledge.
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Fairness Bias
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The tendency to react illogically due to a perceived imbalance in fairness.
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Overconfidence about Decisions
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People consistently have more confidence in their own decisions than in predictions that are based on statistically objective measurements.
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Crystal-Ball Technique
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Leadersare encouraged to imagine that a completely accurate crystal ball has determined that their favored hypothesis is actually incorrect; the decision makers must therefore search for alternative explanations for the outcome.
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Maxmizers
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People who have a maximizing decision-making style; they tend to examine as many options as possible. The task becomes even more challengies as the number of options increases.
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Satisficers
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People who have a satisficing decision-making style; they tend to settle for something that is satisfactory
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