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258 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Structuralism
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Understanding the elements/components of the mind
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Functionalism
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Understanding the processes of the mind
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Law of Effect
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A stimulus will produce a repeated response if the stimulus is rewarding to the organism
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Information Theory
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The amount of information provided by a message/event is INVERSELY proportional to the probability of the message/event occurring
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Bit
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The amount of info provided by a message/event
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Crossman/Hyman
Light stimuli response time study |
INCREASING the probability of a given light flashing = DECREASED uncertainty = DECREASED response time
vice versa |
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Webster/Thomas
airport control tower study |
control tower operators were given airplane code words (from a small sample list) and random words (from a large sample list) to remember
Results - airplane code words were easiest to remember because...small group = less uncertainty = easier to remember |
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Broadbent's Filter Model
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based on our ability to FILTER between relevant/irrelevant information
Stimuli Input -> Senses -> STM -> Filter -> Selected info for attending to Info that does not make it through the Filter remains in the STM until it decays and is forgotten |
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Channel Capacity
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Part of Broadbent's Filter Model
Relates to how we have a limited attentional capacity and therefore must choose what is most important/relevant |
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Waugh and Norman's Model
(for info processing) |
Based on STM and LTM and REHEARSAL
Incoming info goes into STM and if it is REHEARSED enough it will go to LTM If it is NOT rehearsed enough it will decay in the STM until it is lost |
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Primary Memory vs. Secondary Memory
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Primary - what is going on currently (STM)
Secondary - what we remember from the past (LTM) |
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Brown-Peterson Task
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People are given 3 items to remember (U, B, R) and then made to count backwards by 3's
**ability to recall the 3 items DECREASES the longer the counting lasts |
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Information Pickup
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Occurs when we perceive info directly from the environment
Allows us to learn affordances |
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Neisser's Perceptual Cycle
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1) SCHEMAS direct what we expect to experience in the environment
2) EXPLORATION of our environment provides us with samples of objects (information) 3) the OBJECTS we encounter either do or do not fit in our schemas. If they do not fit, we modify our schemas for future exploration |
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Law of Mass Action
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Learning/memory is dependent upon the mass (QUANTITY) of brain tissue available NOT the properties of it (NOT QUALITY)
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Interactionism
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The mind and body are separate entities that interact and influence each other
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Epiphenomenalism
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The mind is a by-product of the body
(mind is to body as steam is to a locomotive) |
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Parallelism
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The mind and body are two parts of the same thing, flowing parallel to each other
(one-to-one correspondence) |
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Isomorphism
(Doctrine of Isomorphism) |
Experience and corresponding neural events share the same pattern (NOT one-to-one correspondence)
ex: with the waterfall illusion, our perception of the waterfall flowing upwards shares the same neural pattern as if we ACTUALLY saw the waterfall flowing upward. (different actual correspondence but same neural pattern) **Gestalt approach |
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Gestalt Switch
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Kohler's idea that changes in neural processes occur due to prolonged exposure to a given stimulus, causing fatigue.
ex: seeing the 'woman' for a long ass time makes our brain fatigued, causing us to switch and see the 'vase' |
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Lesion Studies
single dissociation vs. double dissociation |
single dissociation
-damage to a certain part of the brain causing subsequent impairment of a function (ex: PFC damage vs. no damage 'control') double dissociation -consists of 2 different groups of people with different brain damage and comparing their function impairments (ex: person with PFC damage vs. person with temporal lobe damage) |
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Broca's Area
Broca's Aphasia |
Part of the left hemisphere responsible for speech
Causes a deficit in ability to speak |
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Wenicke's Area
Wenicke's Aphasia |
Part of the left hemisphere responsible for processing the meaning of words
Causes an inability to comprehend others' speech and produce meaningful speech |
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Analytic Reductionism
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If we understand the parts of a system we can add them together and understand the whole
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Connectionism
-2 idea of the theory |
Information can be broken down into tiny units (neurons)
There are connections between these units (axons/synapses) |
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Hebb Rule
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A connection between 2 neurons takes place only if both neurons are firing at the same time
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Parallel Processing
Serial Processing |
Parallel Processing
-many neural connections being active at the same time Serial Processing -only 1 neural connection active at a time |
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Analytic Reductionism
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If we understand the parts of a system we can add them together and understand the whole
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Connectionism
-2 idea of the theory |
Information can be broken down into tiny units (neurons)
There are connections between these units (axons/synapses) |
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Hebb Rule
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A connection between 2 neurons takes place only if both neurons are firing at the same time
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Parallel Processing
Serial Processing |
Parallel Processing
-many neural connections being active at the same time Serial Processing -only 1 neural connection active at a time |
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The Illusion of Clarity
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If a grid is placed over a fuzzy, unclear image, it causes it to appear clearer
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Time Spaces
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The perception of the names of time units as taking up actual physical space
(ex: a month taking up more 'space' than a second) |
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Theory of Ecological Optics
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Perception is the OBJECTIVE experience of what we perceive.
ex: it is the physical light stimuli we absorb, no subjectivity exists |
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Theory of Ecological Optics
vs. Pattern Recognition Theory |
Objective, physical stimuli
vs. Subjective, mental representations |
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Topological Breakage
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The discontinuity between 2 different texture gradients.
Shows where edges exist |
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Pattern Recognition Theory
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We subjectively interpret stimuli based on our mental representations
(connections between percepts and memory traces) |
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Hoffding Function
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When incoming sensory info (percepts) make contact with (memory traces), recognition occurs
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Multiple-Trace Memory Model
(Hintzman) |
Traces of EVERY INDIVIDUAL experience are recorded, no matter the frequency of the experience
ie: every event creates a new memory trace every time |
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Probes, Echoes, Primary Memory, and Secondary Memory
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When we currently perceive PERCEPTS something it occurs in our PRIMARY MEMORY. PROBES are sent from our primary memory to our SECONDARY MEMORY. If there is a MEMORY TRACE in our secondary memory of the current percept an ECHO is sent back.
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Posner Study
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Participants are shown degraded images made up only of dots
They were able to recognize the prototypes relating to the degraded images (echo of an echo) |
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Feature Detection Theory
(Selfridge) |
A type of pattern recognition
3 levels Data (Feature Demons) -the pattern of features of a given stimulus Cognitive Demons -determine if the features from the DATA matches its own features...the more similar they are, the louder the cognitive demons "shout" Decision Demons -determine which cognitive demons are 'shouting' the loudest...whichever is chosen determines recognition |
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Contrast Energy
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The degree of contrast between letters in a word and the background
The LONGER the word, the GREATER the contrast energy needed to read the word |
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Squelching
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Tendency for the nervous system to inhibit processing unclear features
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Recognition by Components
(Biederman) |
Based on breaking down objects into geons
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Biederman's Hypothesis
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Object recognition should be a function of the # of geons available
ie: more geons = easier recognition ie: the more complex an object = the easier the recognition |
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Bottom-Up
vs. Top-Down |
Bottom-Up = perception based on the bits and pieces of actual perception
Top-Down = perception based on our prior experiences, expectations, and goals |
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Jumbled Word Effect
-what explains it? -where does jumbling have the biggest effect |
Top-Down processing (expecting what the word will read) helps you recognize it
Jumbling at the beginning-middle-end has the biggest effect in that order |
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Word Superiority Effect
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It is easier to identify a letter if it appears in a word
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Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP)
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Different features of an object are processed at the same time by different units all connected by the same network
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Empirical Theory of Color Vision
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Color perception involves BOTH the processing of physical wavelengths of light (CONTEXT) and PRIOR EXPERIENCE / EXPECTATIONS
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McGurk Effect
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Perception of "da" when seeing the mouth silently wording "ga" and hearing "ba"
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Grand Illusion of Perception
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The experience of a clear, full picture of the world even though in truth we are only perceiving bits and pieces at any given time
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Feature Integration Theory (FIT)
-what it is -2 parts |
Before we can attend to objects in our environment we much 1st extract the features making those objects up
1) Pre-attentive Processing -Automatic extraction of the features of an object before perceiving it 2) Attentive Processing -FEATURE BINDING - the combining of the extracted features to make a whole image |
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Principles of Perceptual Organization
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Emergence - things emerge together
Reification - perceived objects contain more info than the actual physical stimulus (ex: mind filling in blanks) Multistability - Tendency for 2 percepts to alternate (ex: woman/vase) Invariance - Simple geometric chapes are recognized regardless of orientation, color, etc |
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Denotivity
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The degree to which an object is meaningful and familiar
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Limitations of Gestalt Perception
-Gestaltist's Error |
There are cases where we would perceive something different if we took the parts into consideration rather than just looking at the whole thing
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Limitations of Gestalt Perception
-Ceteris Paribus |
Gestalt principles only work when all other principles are held constant
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Visual Form Agnosia
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Inability to match, recognize, or draw objects
Still able to reach and grasp objects Caused by damage to the Parietal Lobe |
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Optic Ataxia
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Inability to interact, reach, and grasp for objects.
Still able to recognize them Caused by damage to the parietal lobe |
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Prosopagnosia
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Form of visual agnosia.
Inability to consciously recognize familiar faces. Still able to unconsciously recognize (shown through skin conductance) |
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Capgras Syndrome
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The belief that significant others have been replaced by imposters
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Ventral Stream
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"what" (think what is under me)
Temporal Lobe controls item recognition |
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Dorsal Stream
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"where"
Parietal controls grasping, touching, interacting |
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Spotlight Theory
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We attend to things within our "spotlight" and ignore things outside
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Gradient Hypothesis
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We process info in the center of our "spotlight" more than stuff on the edges
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Selective Attention Processing Stages (5)
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1) Stimuli
2) Registration 3) Perceptual Analysis 4) Semantic Analysis 5) Response |
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Shadowing Task
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People listen to 2 different messages in each ear and are made to repeat (SHADOW) one of the messages
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Early Selection/Filter
vs. Late Selection/Filter |
Occurs when you know what to pay attention to. (ex: dichotic listening, shadowing task)
Occurs when you are unsure of what you should be paying attention to. (ex: Stroop task) |
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DLPFC favors...
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top-down information processing
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ACC (Anterior Cingulate Cortex)
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Detects conflicting responses
Used for attentional control |
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Attention Capture
vs. Inattentional Blindness |
Tendency for stimuli to catch our attention when we don't want them to
Tendency to not pay attention to what we normally would (ex: gorilla running across basketball court) |
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Flanker Task
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Experiment in which participants' responses are influenced by irrelevant stimuli
EX: Made to look for the name of either a celeb/politician when seeing a photo of either the congruent/incongruent type of person |
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Models of Attention
-Capacity Model -Structural Limits |
Attention is like a power supply with a limited capacity
Attention is limited to the extent that multiple attended tasks are in the same domain (ex: both verbal) |
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Latent Bottleneck
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The bottleneck (filter) for different stimuli (audio, visual, etc) occurs at different points on the information stream, allowing for multiple forms of info to be processed simultaneously
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"Set"
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Preparation for a goal-oriented task
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Switch Cost
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Performance on a task IMMEDIATELY after switching to it is worse than usual performance would be
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Backward Masking
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Presenting a target stimulus and then immediately masking it with another stimulus
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Stimulus Onset Asynchrony (SOA)
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The time interval between the target stimulus and the masking stimulus
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Dissociation Paradigm
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It is possible to perceive stimuli without conscious awareness of perceiving them
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Objective Threshold
vs. Subjective Threshold |
The level at which someone perceives stimuli as frequently as could be expected by chance (50%)
The level at which a degraded stimuli can no longer be perceived |
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Process Dissociation Procedure
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Experimental technique in which people are told to NOT answer with a word they have previously scene
(ex: subliminally seeing moose so omitting that from a list of word) Tests the Dissociation Paradigm |
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Attentional Blink
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When 2 stimuli are presented quickly after one another, it becomes difficult to report seeing the 2nd one
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Overt Attention
vs. Covert Attention |
Attending to something with eye movements
Attending to something without using eye movements |
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Volitional Attention
vs. Reflexive Attention |
Controlled, willful attention
Automatic attention |
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Sequential Attention Hypothesis
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Model of attention in which COVERT ATTENTION occurs 1st and then OVERT ATTENTION follows 2nd
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Saccades
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Random, rapid eye movements
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Physiological Nystagmus
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Small, continuous eye movements that occur during fixation
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Moving Window Technique
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A 'window' moves across text, limiting how much can be seen at a given time
Reading ability is affected at <20 letters at a time |
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Quiet Eye
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Sustained, steady eye gaze prior to an action/behavior
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Location Suppressed Hypothesis
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The idea that the quiet eye 1ST gather as much info about a target and then 2ND inhibits vision to prevent distractions
ex: basketball player or golfer |
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Inhibition of Return (IOR)
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Attention in inhibited from returning to a recently attended to stimulus
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Feature Search
vs. Conjunction Search |
Target has a characteristic unique from all the distractors
Target shares all its characteristics with at least one other distractor |
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Rapid Visual Stream Presentation (RSVP)
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same as Attentional Blink
quickly presenting a stimulus right after another, making it difficult to perceive the 2nd one |
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Hemispatial Neglect
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unilateral damage to the parietal lobe
causes neglect of info in the contralesional side of the viewing field |
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Balint's Syndrome
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Bilateral damage to the parietal lobe
Causes people to only see 1 object at a time and unable to report on object location/movement |
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Mystic Writing Pad
vs. Reappearance Hypothesis |
Memory is NOT an exact replication but rather constructed from bits and pieces
Memory is an EXACT replication of what was previously experienced |
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Flashbulb Memories
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Vivid, detailed memories of significant events
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Now Print Theory
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The process by which flashbulb memories are created
Similar to carbon-copying |
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Method of Repeated Reproduction
vs. Method of Serial Reproduction |
A person is made to recall something many times over a long time period
Person A writes down something they recall...Person B reads that and later writes it down...etc BOTH LEAD TO DECREASING CONSISTENCY OVER TIME |
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Schema Theory + Memory
4 step process |
1) SELECTION
-We select info to remember based on our schema at the time (remember this bullshit only because it is exam time) 2) ABSTRACTION -We convert incoming info into a form that is easier to remember 3) INTERPRETATION -We make inferences about incoming info when we interpret it and these inferences are stored with the info 4) INTEGRATION -we store our subjective meaning of the info with everything else to form one consistent memory (Gestalt "whole" idea) |
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Misinformation Effect
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Misleading POST-EVENT info can become integrated with the original event
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False Memories
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Incorrect memories due to forgetting the SOURCE of the info
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Source Monitoring Framework
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Process by which people fail to distinguish between a real and imagined event
aka process by which false memories are created Due to faulty source monitoring |
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Yerkes-Dawson Law
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Optimal performance for attention/memory occurs at MEDIUM levels of AROUSAL
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Jost's Law of Forgetting
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Of 2 memory traces, the younger trace will decay (be forgotten) faster, and the rate of decay declines over time
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Ribot's Law of Retrograde Amnesia
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Older memories are less likely to be affected by brain damage
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Law of Progressions and Pathologies
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The most recent memories are 1st to show signs of decay
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Permastore (Bahrick)
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A state of permanence that some information reaches where it will no longer decay
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Permastore Study
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Spanish students forgot what they learned for the first 3-6 years after stopping Spanish class, but then there was no info loss over the next 25 years (permastore status)
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Echoic Memory
Iconic Memory |
Auditory Stimulus Information
Visual Stimulus Information |
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Proactive Interference
Retroactive Interference |
Inability to recall new information due to information experienced in the past
Inability to recall old information due to learning new information recently |
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Brown and Peterson Task
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People are given 3 letters to remember and then told to count backwards by 3's (retroactive interference)
Leads to inability to recall the 3 letters |
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Serial Position Effect
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When memorizing words, recall is best...(in this order)
Recency Effect Primacy Effect Middle Words |
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Principle of Encoding Specificity (Tulving)
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The way we recall a memory depends on how the original memory was stored
(with a specific cue) |
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Anoetic Consciousness
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Procedural Memory
Implicit Memory Knowing what to do but not being able to articulate it Ex: riding a bike |
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Noetic Consciousness
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Semantic Memory
Explicit Memory Knowing what you are doing and how/why you know how to do it Ex: math |
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Autonoetic Consciousness
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Episodic Memory
Remembering your own past and seeing a future |
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Prefrontal Leucotomy
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Disconnects the PFC
Ruins autonoetic consciousness (episodic memory) |
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Exaptations
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Pre-existing memory traits originally meant to serve other functions
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Baldwin Effect
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Process by which changes in an individual's life can influence subsequent evolution in future generations
(explains how episodic memory came from semantic memory) |
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Evolution of Memory
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Semantic -> Episodic
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Method of Opposition
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People are shown a list of words under full/divided attention
Later they are told to complete word stems NOT using the original words Divided attention = lack of conscious control |
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Quillan's Teachable Language Comprehender (TLC)
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Computer program for semantic memory
Sees semantic memory as having 3 elements 1) Units (nouns, etc) 2) Properties (adjectives) 3) Pointers (connections between units and properties) |
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The Fan Effect
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The more meaningful something is = the more connections it has to other concepts (the bigger its "fan") = the weaker each individual association (connection) is, the less likely that activation of a random concept on the "fan" will activate the original thing
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Propositional Network
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A network of relationships between concepts
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Phonological Loop
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Stores linguistic/verbal info with a limited capacity
Draws on verbal info from the LTM |
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Visua-Spatial Sketchpad
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stores non-verbal info with a limited capacity
draws on semantic memory from the LTM |
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Episodic Buffer
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Moves info between EPISODIC memory and LTM
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Fluid Systems
vs. Crystallized Systems |
Fluid - systems that only manipulate info and are unchanged by learning (they do not store info)
Crystallized - Systems that accumulate long-term knowledge and episodic memory |
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Associative Deficit Hypothesis
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Older people have a harder time creating and using links between single units of info
aka their propositional network fails |
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Amnesic Syndrome
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Effects explicit memory more than implicit
-able to do a math problem but now able to recall how they knew how to do it |
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Disconnection Syndrome
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Occurs when amnesic patients learn new info but are unaware any learning took place
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Dual-Coding Theory (Paivio)
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Both VERBAL and NON-VERBAL information can be used to represent events
The 2 systems are connected (referential connections) |
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Referential Connections
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Info from 1 of the systems (verbal/non-verbal) can influence the other system
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Logogens
vs. Imagens |
Logogens
-Used by the VERBAL system for incoming verbal info -Operate NON-SIMULTANEOUSLY Imagens -Used by the NON-VERBAL system for incoming non-verbal info -Operate SIMULTANEOUSLY |
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Concreteness
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How easily a word can be transcribed into a mental image
(chair = highly concrete) (joy = less concrete) |
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Concrete vs. Abstract Words
and Dual-Coding Theory |
Concrete words can be interpreted by BOTH verbal and non-verbal systems
Abstract words can only be interpreted by the NON-VERBAL system |
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Method of Loci
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Mnemonics method
Uses associations between objects and places Ex: the dog jumped over the moon |
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Von Restorff Effect
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Recall for bizarre+ordinary words is much better than recall for only bizarre or only ordinary words
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Special Places Strategy
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Mnemonic technique
Just uses an object and a location WITHOUT an association between the two |
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Method of Loci
vs. Special Places Strategy |
M of L - uses associations
(ex: keys are dancing in fridge) SPS - makes no association (ex: simply keys are in fridge) |
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Chromaesthasia
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The experience of color in response to an auditory stimulus
|
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Inducers
& Concurrents |
Inducers - The cue that elicits a synaesthetic experience (becoming angry)
Concurrent - The synaesthetic response itself (seeing red) |
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Apoptosis
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The theory that synaesthesia is the result of incomplete pruning of synaptic connections
|
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Strong vs. Weak
Synaesthetes |
Strong - classical type, (ex: seeing red when angry)
Weak - sensing laughter as 'brighter' than silence |
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Icon
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A 'snapshot' of a visual stimulus that persists for a short time
|
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Eidetic Imagery
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Photographic memory
A long lasting mental 'scan' that can be looked over at a later time |
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Cognitive Dedifferentiation
|
When functions that typically work separately are fused instead
(ex: synaethesia) |
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Readiness to Perceive Something Study
|
Participants are made to image a letter superimposed on a grid
Then a dot is flashed in a box either in or outside where the imagined letter would lie Response time is much shorter if the dot falls in a "covered" box |
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Analog Form of Representation
+ what is an Analog |
Analogs embody the relationship of the thing it represents
Mental images may be analogs of real world situations |
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Egocentric Perspective Transformation
|
The act of "moving yourself around" within an imagined scene
(ex: picturing yourself in your kitchen to remember whether you turned the stove off) Imagining stuff ABOVE or BELOW us is EASY Imagining stuff to the LEFT, RIGHT, or BEHIND us is HARD |
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Path Integration
|
The process by which a person's location is constantly updated in their mind in relation to a landmark so as to aid moving through their environment
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Bottom-Up vs. Top-Down
& Language |
We construct our own sentences BOTTOM-UP
(putting together all the pieces to say what we want to) We understand others's speech TOP-DOWN (taking their whole sentences and breaking them down to understand) |
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Phrase Structure Rules
|
Rules for how sentences must be constructed
|
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Terminal String
|
The final string of words in a sentence
|
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Kernel Sentences
|
THe most basic sentences that HAVE NOT undergone any grammatical transformations
|
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Competence vs. Performance
|
Competence - ability to use internalized rules (grammar) for speech and listening
Performance - competence + use of experience and understanding of the situation to better understand others |
|
Deep Structure vs. Surface Structure
+ Listening/Speaking |
Surface - the words themselves
Deep - the meaning within the words When we SPEAK - we turn DEEP structures (our intentions) into SURFACE structures (words that we speak) When we LISTEN - we turn SURFACE structures (the words we hear) into DEEP structures (what we infer the meaning to be) |
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Poverty of Stimulus Argument
|
The verbal environment a child is exposed to lacks enough stimuli for them to learn language on their own
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Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
|
Innate device from which a child can learn a language
|
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Hypothesis of Minimalism
|
Human language may be computationally perfect for relating sound to meaning
|
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Parameter Setting Theory
|
There is a universal standard language
There are PARAMETERS that can be set to different values (ex: noun location is a parameter) Every different language is simply the universal language with different parameter settings Whichever settings a child is exposed to most is what they adopt as their native language |
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Concealing Function of Language
|
Language is a type of code
Knowing the language's parameter settings is the only way to 'unlock' the code |
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Chomsky's Evolution of Language (3)
|
1) Sensory-Motor System
-Allows us to perceive and produce speech 2) Conceptual-Intentional System -Allows us to grasp the meaning of speech and act on it 3) Uniquely Human System -RECURSION - Allows us to make infinite sentences by simply putting simple sentences together |
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Code Model of Communication
|
1) the speakers thoughts are encoded into words
2) the words become a signal that travels through the air to the listener 3) the listener decodes the signal to infer the speaker's original message **assumes the speaker+listener share common knowledge |
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Inferential Model of Communication
|
Based on INTENTIONS of the speaker and INFERENCES the listener makes
|
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4 Conversational Maxims
|
1) Maxim of Quantity
-speaker attempts to say no more than what is necessary 2) Maxim of Quality -Speaker attempts to be truthful 3) Maxim of Relation -Speaker attempts to be relevant 4) Maxim of Manner -Speaker attempts to avoid ambiguity |
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Co-operative Principle
|
We assume other speakers follow the 4 maxims, aiding us in understanding what the intend
|
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Pretense Theory of Irony
vs. Standard Theory of Irony |
When speaking ironically, the speaker only pretends to mean what they say
Listeners 1st take ironic speaker literally, 2nd they realize it cannot be literal, 3rd they assume the speaker means the opposite **depends on shared knowledge |
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Zone of Proximal Development
|
The difference between what a child could learn on their own and what they can learn with the help of a more capable person
|
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Metalinguistic Awareness
& Metalanguage |
When we use language to talk about other language
ex: similes and metaphors |
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Surface Dyslexia
vs. Phonological Dyslexia |
Surface - deficit in the ability to read WHOLE WORDS
Phono - deficit in the ability to sound out PHONEMES (they either know the word or they don't - sounding out is not an option) |
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Dual Route Theory (of reading)
|
Suggest we use 2 methods when reading
1 - comparing words to our lexicon 2 - sounding out words by their phonemes |
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Linguistic Relativity
|
People judge/perceive situations based on the words that are used to describe them
|
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Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
|
2 languages may be sooo different from each other that speakers from each language may perceive the world differently
(ex: eskimos have 14 words for snow = polysemy) |
|
Berlin-Kay Order
|
Color words develop in a predictable, stable sequence
(ex: black, white, red, green...) FALSE |
|
1) Intrinsic Frame of Reference
2) Relative Frame of Reference 3) Absolute Frame of Reference |
1) Simply the location relationship between 2 items
-the man is next to the couch 2) Described in relation to the observer's POV -the man is to the left of the couch 3) Described in objective terms -the man is west of the couch |
|
Selective Access
vs. Non-Selective Access (for bilinguals) |
Selective - ONE lexicon activated
Non-Selective - BOTH lexicons activated |
|
Homographs
& Cognates |
Homographs - words that LOOK the SAME and have DIFFERENT MEANINGS
Cognates - words that LOOK the SAME and have the SAME MEANINGS |
|
Homographs / Cognates
Selective Access / Non-Selective Access |
HOMOGRAPHS
-Selective Access -> NO INTERFERENCE -Non-Selective Access -> INTERFERENCE COGNATES -Selective Access -> NO FACILITATION -Non-Selective Access -> FACILITATION |
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Maya's Study
|
Checked interference/facilitation effects for cognates/homographs
|
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Dual Route Theory (of reading)
|
Suggest we use 2 methods when reading
1 - comparing words to our lexicon 2 - sounding out words by their phonemes |
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Linguistic Relativity
|
People judge/perceive situations based on the words that are used to describe them
|
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Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
|
2 languages may be sooo different from each other that speakers from each language may perceive the world differently
(ex: eskimos have 14 words for snow = polysemy) |
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Berlin-Kay Order
|
Color words develop in a predictable, stable sequence
(ex: black, white, red, green...) FALSE |
|
1) Intrinsic Frame of Reference
2) Relative Frame of Reference 3) Absolute Frame of Reference |
1) Simply the location relationship between 2 items
-the man is next to the couch 2) Described in relation to the observer's POV -the man is to the left of the couch 3) Described in objective terms -the man is west of the couch |
|
Selective Access
vs. Non-Selective Access (for bilinguals) |
Selective - ONE lexicon activated
Non-Selective - BOTH lexicons activated |
|
Homographs
& Cognates |
Homographs - words that LOOK the SAME and have DIFFERENT MEANINGS
Cognates - words that LOOK the SAME and have the SAME MEANINGS |
|
Homographs / Cognates
Selective Access / Non-Selective Access |
HOMOGRAPHS
-Selective Access -> NO INTERFERENCE -Non-Selective Access -> INTERFERENCE COGNATES -Selective Access -> NO FACILITATION -Non-Selective Access -> FACILITATION |
|
Maya's Study
|
Checked interference/facilitation effects for cognates/homographs
|
|
Isomorphic Problems
|
Problems that are very similar to each other
|
|
Productive Thinking
|
Thinking in ways that apply to whatever CURRENT situation you are in
|
|
Structurally Blind Thinking
|
Thinking in ways that apply to OTHER situations but NOT your current situation
|
|
Wertheimer's 2 types of thinking
|
Productive Thinking
(based on current situation) Structurally Blind Thinking (based on other situations) |
|
2 conditions necessary for hint to be useful
|
1) Must be CONSISTENT with person's direction of thinking
2) Must respond to an already experienced difficulty |
|
Feeling of Warmth
|
Feeling that you are 'getting warm' (nearing a solution)
For insight problems you do not 'feel warm' until after you have reached the solution |
|
Feeling of Knowing
|
Feeling that you are capable of solving a problem
Does not occur with insight problems |
|
Progress Monitoring Theory
|
1) People take the most straightforward approach
2) If/when people reach a "wall" they begin to consider other possible solutions 3) The faster they hit a "wall", the faster an insightful solution can come about |
|
Representational Change Theory
|
Insight requires restructuring of the way we think represent a problem (2 possible ways)
1) Constraint Relaxation -removing assumptions that block the true solution 2) Chunk Decomposition -breaking the problem down into smaller parts and dealing with each part separately |
|
The ACC (anterior cingulate cortex)
+ Insight |
The ACC detects conflict between normal ways of thinking and insightful ways
|
|
Einstellung Effect
|
Tendency to develop a "rigid set" after solving a problem the same way many times
Creates inflexibility for thinking about future problems |
|
Negative Transfer
|
Tendency to respond with previously learned solution processes even though they no longer apply
aka applying rigid sets |
|
Strong but Wrong Tendency
|
Tendency to apply an over-learned response when you do not intend to
ex: checking the time on your phone rather than your brand new watch |
|
Search Tree
|
A representation of all possible solution paths from an original problem
|
|
Tower of Hanoi
-requires what process? |
Chunk Decomposition
|
|
General Problem Solving (GPS)
-Production Rules -Means-End Analysis |
Production Rules
-Consists of a condition and an action (ex: solution reached > stop) Means-End Analysis -attempts to reduce the difference between current state and goal/solution state |
|
BACON
|
Computational model that searches for patterns between 2 variables
|
|
Face Valid
|
Computational method that measures what it is intended to and nothing else
|
|
Zeigarnik Effect
|
Tendency to finish incomplete tasks
|
|
Protocol
|
Verbal description of a person's solution process
|
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Syllogistic Reasoning
|
consists of 2 premises and a conclusion
|
|
4 forms of premises for syllogistic reasoning
|
Universal Affirmative
All A are B Universal Negative No A are B Particular Affirmative Some A are B Particular Negative Some A are not B |
|
Practical Syllogism
|
Occurs when conclusions from syllogistic reasoning leads to an action in real life
|
|
Transitive Relations
|
premises based on relational comparisons
(ex: A is greater than B) |
|
Mental Models Theory
-Iconic -Emergent Consequences -Parsimony |
Iconic
-Relationships between elements of the mental model correspond to relationships between elements in the situation the model represents Emergent Consequences -You can get more out of a mental model than what you originally put in Parsimony -tending to construct the simplest mental model possible |
|
Watson's Puzzles
-The Generative Problem -Card Selection Task |
The Generative Problem
-a problem in which people are not provided any info about how to "solve" the problem (ex: being told that 3 numbers conform to a simple rule) Card Selection Task -shown 4 cards and needing to find the rule relating the front of the cards to the backs |
|
Law of Large Numbers
Law of Small Numbers |
Large - the larger the sample from a population, the closer a statistic will be to the true value
Small - FALSE belief that a small sample will be highly representative of the population from which it is drawn |
|
Hot-Hand Belief
Hot-Hand Behavior |
Belief - the thought that if a basketball player just made a shot, they will likely make the next shot too (hot-streaks)
Behavior - the idea that if a basketball player just made a shot they will likely shoot again |
|
Regression towards the mean
|
If an extreme value is produced on a given trial, the next value will be closer to the mean
ex: if you have a really tall kid, your next kid will be closer to average height |
|
Stanford-Binet Test of Intelligence
|
Developed IQ
|
|
IQ = ?
|
IQ = (mental age / chronological age x 100)
|
|
Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence
|
People have two types of intelligence
General Intelligence (g) -varies between individuals Specific Intelligence -varies between and within individuals |
|
Crystallized Intelligence
|
Consists of what you have learned
Grows throughout one's life |
|
Fluid Intelligence
|
The ability to think flexibly
Same as general intelligence increases in youth but becomes stable in adulthood |
|
Eduction
|
A component of general intelligence
Our ability to 'draw-out' relationships in new situations |
|
Raven Progressive Matrices Test
|
Most accepted test of g
Measures ability for eduction |
|
The Flynn Effect
|
typical IQ scores have been increasing over time
actual g has started to reach potential g |
|
3 Intellectual Components
|
1) Metacomponents
-executive components used for planning, monitoring, and decision making 2) Performance Components -used in the execution of a task 3) Knowledge Acquisition Components -Used for learning, and storing of new information |
|
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory
-3 types of intelligence |
Analytic Intelligence
-book smart -closely related to g Creative Intelligence -ability to reason out new problems Practical Intelligence -used in familiar everyday thinking |
|
Entrenched Concepts
|
Concepts that strike us as simple and easy to understand
|
|
Successful Intelligence
|
When all 3 types of intelligence are fairly high
|
|
Theory of Multiple Intelligences
-proven by...? -criticisms |
Prodigies
-if you can be REALLY good at one thing and average at other things than there must be multiple intelligences -said to be too focussed on talents/gifts and not enough on general intelligence |
|
Ur-Song
|
the idea that there is a song that all children can innately sing
|
|
Blind Variation
|
The process by which alternatives are explored without knowing in advance how they will turn out
Pure trial and error |
|
Price's Law
|
The idea that half of all contributions in a given field will be produced by the square root of the total number of workers in the field
|
|
Remote Associations
+ Creativity |
Remote associations are the uncommon/random associations between things that we don't usually think about
The more often you think of these remote associations, the more creative you are |
|
Flat Hierarchies
|
The idea that we think of things in a hierarchy fashion with common things at the top and more uncommon things (remote associations) at the bottom
Creative people have 'flat hierarchies' meaning they are just as likely to think of remote associations as normal ones |
|
Stages in the Creative Process
|
1) Preparation
-the problem is formulated 2) Incubation -the problem isn't consciously thought of but is worked on unconsciously 3) Illumination -The point where a useful idea first emerges 4) Verification -The soundness of an idea is evaluated |
|
Oops, I did it again effect
|
A habitual action sequence that may become activated without us intending
ex: walking home even though you rode your bike |
|
Faulty Formulation of Intentions
(2 types) |
Mode Errors
-Carrying out an action that would be appropriate in another situation but not in the current one (ex: picking up your phone and saying "come in") Description Errors -Errors that occur because we do not have enough understanding of the situation (ex: punching someone because you think they are yelling at you but they are yelling at someone else) |
|
Faulty Activation of a Schema
-capture errors |
When familar schema becomes activated in place of the correct schema
|
|
Inappropriately Triggered Schema
-Anticipation Errors |
Anticipating a future course of action, screwing up the current course of action
Ex: imagining the next word you are going to type, fucking up your current word |
|
Spoonerism
|
A type of anticipation error where an entire sequence of words is thought of before they are actually said, causing you to jumble them
|
|
Molar/Molecular Behavior
|
Molar - our general behavior
(ex: going to school) Molecular - our specific behaviors (ex: riding a bike to school) |
|
Antecedents
|
Factors that combine in a unique way to cause a given outcome
|
|
Cleopatra's Nose Problem
|
You can think up any number of hypothetical events that COULD have occurred in history without ever being sure what the different outcome would be
|
|
Cognitive Ergonomics
|
Used to understand USER INTERFACES aka the connection between human and machine
|
|
Fitt's Law
|
Describes the difficulty of moving a pointer to a specific location
Based on distance to target and size of target |
|
Foresight Bias
|
Tendency to believe you will remember something if you see it now
|
|
Region of Proximal Learning
|
Tendency for people to work on tasks of MEDIUM difficulty
|
|
Spacing Effect
|
Distribution of learning over several different sessions
Leads to better memory |
|
Massed Practice
vs. Distributed Practice |
Massed Practice - re-reading immediately after seeing something (good for if the exam is very soon)
Distributed - Re-reading a little while after 1st seeing something (good if the exam is a ways away) |
|
Designing a User Interface
-Recognition -Modularity -Consistency |
Recognition
-The degree to which a user can tell what is going on just by looking Modularity -Degree to which something can be broken down into parts Consistency -The degree to which a user can understand an entire system by only learning one part |
|
Rampant Featurism
|
Tendency for user interfaces to have wayyyy more shit then will ever be needed/used
|
|
Social Brain Hypothesis
aka Machiavellian Intelligence Hypothesis |
Increased cortical matter in the brain may be due to an increasing social structure
|
|
VMPFC
|
Phineas Gage damaged this
Changed his personality, manners, and ability to plan for the future |
|
Somatosensory Cortex
|
Judges and recognizes facial expressions and emotions in others
|