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258 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Structuralism
Understanding the elements/components of the mind
Functionalism
Understanding the processes of the mind
Law of Effect
A stimulus will produce a repeated response if the stimulus is rewarding to the organism
Information Theory
The amount of information provided by a message/event is INVERSELY proportional to the probability of the message/event occurring
Bit
The amount of info provided by a message/event
Crossman/Hyman
Light stimuli response time study
INCREASING the probability of a given light flashing = DECREASED uncertainty = DECREASED response time

vice versa
Webster/Thomas
airport control tower study
control tower operators were given airplane code words (from a small sample list) and random words (from a large sample list) to remember

Results - airplane code words were easiest to remember because...small group = less uncertainty = easier to remember
Broadbent's Filter Model
based on our ability to FILTER between relevant/irrelevant information

Stimuli Input -> Senses -> STM -> Filter -> Selected info for attending to

Info that does not make it through the Filter remains in the STM until it decays and is forgotten
Channel Capacity
Part of Broadbent's Filter Model

Relates to how we have a limited attentional capacity and therefore must choose what is most important/relevant
Waugh and Norman's Model
(for info processing)
Based on STM and LTM and REHEARSAL

Incoming info goes into STM and if it is REHEARSED enough it will go to LTM

If it is NOT rehearsed enough it will decay in the STM until it is lost
Primary Memory vs. Secondary Memory
Primary - what is going on currently (STM)

Secondary - what we remember from the past (LTM)
Brown-Peterson Task
People are given 3 items to remember (U, B, R) and then made to count backwards by 3's

**ability to recall the 3 items DECREASES the longer the counting lasts
Information Pickup
Occurs when we perceive info directly from the environment

Allows us to learn affordances
Neisser's Perceptual Cycle
1) SCHEMAS direct what we expect to experience in the environment

2) EXPLORATION of our environment provides us with samples of objects (information)

3) the OBJECTS we encounter either do or do not fit in our schemas. If they do not fit, we modify our schemas for future exploration
Law of Mass Action
Learning/memory is dependent upon the mass (QUANTITY) of brain tissue available NOT the properties of it (NOT QUALITY)
Interactionism
The mind and body are separate entities that interact and influence each other
Epiphenomenalism
The mind is a by-product of the body
(mind is to body as steam is to a locomotive)
Parallelism
The mind and body are two parts of the same thing, flowing parallel to each other
(one-to-one correspondence)
Isomorphism
(Doctrine of Isomorphism)
Experience and corresponding neural events share the same pattern (NOT one-to-one correspondence)

ex: with the waterfall illusion, our perception of the waterfall flowing upwards shares the same neural pattern as if we ACTUALLY saw the waterfall flowing upward. (different actual correspondence but same neural pattern)

**Gestalt approach
Gestalt Switch
Kohler's idea that changes in neural processes occur due to prolonged exposure to a given stimulus, causing fatigue.

ex: seeing the 'woman' for a long ass time makes our brain fatigued, causing us to switch and see the 'vase'
Lesion Studies

single dissociation vs. double dissociation
single dissociation
-damage to a certain part of the brain causing subsequent impairment of a function
(ex: PFC damage vs. no damage 'control')


double dissociation
-consists of 2 different groups of people with different brain damage and comparing their function impairments
(ex: person with PFC damage vs. person with temporal lobe damage)
Broca's Area

Broca's Aphasia
Part of the left hemisphere responsible for speech

Causes a deficit in ability to speak
Wenicke's Area

Wenicke's Aphasia
Part of the left hemisphere responsible for processing the meaning of words

Causes an inability to comprehend others' speech and produce meaningful speech
Analytic Reductionism
If we understand the parts of a system we can add them together and understand the whole
Connectionism
-2 idea of the theory
Information can be broken down into tiny units (neurons)

There are connections between these units (axons/synapses)
Hebb Rule
A connection between 2 neurons takes place only if both neurons are firing at the same time
Parallel Processing
Serial Processing
Parallel Processing
-many neural connections being active at the same time

Serial Processing
-only 1 neural connection active at a time
Analytic Reductionism
If we understand the parts of a system we can add them together and understand the whole
Connectionism
-2 idea of the theory
Information can be broken down into tiny units (neurons)

There are connections between these units (axons/synapses)
Hebb Rule
A connection between 2 neurons takes place only if both neurons are firing at the same time
Parallel Processing
Serial Processing
Parallel Processing
-many neural connections being active at the same time

Serial Processing
-only 1 neural connection active at a time
The Illusion of Clarity
If a grid is placed over a fuzzy, unclear image, it causes it to appear clearer
Time Spaces
The perception of the names of time units as taking up actual physical space

(ex: a month taking up more 'space' than a second)
Theory of Ecological Optics
Perception is the OBJECTIVE experience of what we perceive.

ex: it is the physical light stimuli we absorb, no subjectivity exists
Theory of Ecological Optics
vs.
Pattern Recognition Theory
Objective, physical stimuli
vs.
Subjective, mental representations
Topological Breakage
The discontinuity between 2 different texture gradients.
Shows where edges exist
Pattern Recognition Theory
We subjectively interpret stimuli based on our mental representations
(connections between percepts and memory traces)
Hoffding Function
When incoming sensory info (percepts) make contact with (memory traces), recognition occurs
Multiple-Trace Memory Model
(Hintzman)
Traces of EVERY INDIVIDUAL experience are recorded, no matter the frequency of the experience

ie: every event creates a new memory trace every time
Probes, Echoes, Primary Memory, and Secondary Memory
When we currently perceive PERCEPTS something it occurs in our PRIMARY MEMORY. PROBES are sent from our primary memory to our SECONDARY MEMORY. If there is a MEMORY TRACE in our secondary memory of the current percept an ECHO is sent back.
Posner Study
Participants are shown degraded images made up only of dots

They were able to recognize the prototypes relating to the degraded images

(echo of an echo)
Feature Detection Theory
(Selfridge)
A type of pattern recognition
3 levels

Data (Feature Demons)
-the pattern of features of a given stimulus

Cognitive Demons
-determine if the features from the DATA matches its own features...the more similar they are, the louder the cognitive demons "shout"

Decision Demons
-determine which cognitive demons are 'shouting' the loudest...whichever is chosen determines recognition
Contrast Energy
The degree of contrast between letters in a word and the background

The LONGER the word, the GREATER the contrast energy needed to read the word
Squelching
Tendency for the nervous system to inhibit processing unclear features
Recognition by Components
(Biederman)
Based on breaking down objects into geons
Biederman's Hypothesis
Object recognition should be a function of the # of geons available

ie: more geons = easier recognition

ie: the more complex an object = the easier the recognition
Bottom-Up
vs.
Top-Down
Bottom-Up = perception based on the bits and pieces of actual perception

Top-Down = perception based on our prior experiences, expectations, and goals
Jumbled Word Effect
-what explains it?
-where does jumbling have the biggest effect
Top-Down processing (expecting what the word will read) helps you recognize it

Jumbling at the beginning-middle-end has the biggest effect in that order
Word Superiority Effect
It is easier to identify a letter if it appears in a word
Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP)
Different features of an object are processed at the same time by different units all connected by the same network
Empirical Theory of Color Vision
Color perception involves BOTH the processing of physical wavelengths of light (CONTEXT) and PRIOR EXPERIENCE / EXPECTATIONS
McGurk Effect
Perception of "da" when seeing the mouth silently wording "ga" and hearing "ba"
Grand Illusion of Perception
The experience of a clear, full picture of the world even though in truth we are only perceiving bits and pieces at any given time
Feature Integration Theory (FIT)
-what it is
-2 parts
Before we can attend to objects in our environment we much 1st extract the features making those objects up

1) Pre-attentive Processing
-Automatic extraction of the features of an object before perceiving it

2) Attentive Processing
-FEATURE BINDING - the combining of the extracted features to make a whole image
Principles of Perceptual Organization
Emergence - things emerge together

Reification - perceived objects contain more info than the actual physical stimulus (ex: mind filling in blanks)

Multistability - Tendency for 2 percepts to alternate (ex: woman/vase)

Invariance - Simple geometric chapes are recognized regardless of orientation, color, etc
Denotivity
The degree to which an object is meaningful and familiar
Limitations of Gestalt Perception
-Gestaltist's Error
There are cases where we would perceive something different if we took the parts into consideration rather than just looking at the whole thing
Limitations of Gestalt Perception
-Ceteris Paribus
Gestalt principles only work when all other principles are held constant
Visual Form Agnosia
Inability to match, recognize, or draw objects

Still able to reach and grasp objects

Caused by damage to the Parietal Lobe
Optic Ataxia
Inability to interact, reach, and grasp for objects.

Still able to recognize them

Caused by damage to the parietal lobe
Prosopagnosia
Form of visual agnosia.

Inability to consciously recognize familiar faces.

Still able to unconsciously recognize (shown through skin conductance)
Capgras Syndrome
The belief that significant others have been replaced by imposters
Ventral Stream
"what" (think what is under me)

Temporal Lobe

controls item recognition
Dorsal Stream
"where"

Parietal

controls grasping, touching, interacting
Spotlight Theory
We attend to things within our "spotlight" and ignore things outside
Gradient Hypothesis
We process info in the center of our "spotlight" more than stuff on the edges
Selective Attention Processing Stages (5)
1) Stimuli
2) Registration
3) Perceptual Analysis
4) Semantic Analysis
5) Response
Shadowing Task
People listen to 2 different messages in each ear and are made to repeat (SHADOW) one of the messages
Early Selection/Filter
vs.
Late Selection/Filter
Occurs when you know what to pay attention to. (ex: dichotic listening, shadowing task)

Occurs when you are unsure of what you should be paying attention to. (ex: Stroop task)
DLPFC favors...
top-down information processing
ACC (Anterior Cingulate Cortex)
Detects conflicting responses

Used for attentional control
Attention Capture
vs.
Inattentional Blindness
Tendency for stimuli to catch our attention when we don't want them to

Tendency to not pay attention to what we normally would
(ex: gorilla running across basketball court)
Flanker Task
Experiment in which participants' responses are influenced by irrelevant stimuli

EX: Made to look for the name of either a celeb/politician when seeing a photo of either the congruent/incongruent type of person
Models of Attention
-Capacity Model
-Structural Limits
Attention is like a power supply with a limited capacity

Attention is limited to the extent that multiple attended tasks are in the same domain (ex: both verbal)
Latent Bottleneck
The bottleneck (filter) for different stimuli (audio, visual, etc) occurs at different points on the information stream, allowing for multiple forms of info to be processed simultaneously
"Set"
Preparation for a goal-oriented task
Switch Cost
Performance on a task IMMEDIATELY after switching to it is worse than usual performance would be
Backward Masking
Presenting a target stimulus and then immediately masking it with another stimulus
Stimulus Onset Asynchrony (SOA)
The time interval between the target stimulus and the masking stimulus
Dissociation Paradigm
It is possible to perceive stimuli without conscious awareness of perceiving them
Objective Threshold
vs.
Subjective Threshold
The level at which someone perceives stimuli as frequently as could be expected by chance (50%)

The level at which a degraded stimuli can no longer be perceived
Process Dissociation Procedure
Experimental technique in which people are told to NOT answer with a word they have previously scene
(ex: subliminally seeing moose so omitting that from a list of word)

Tests the Dissociation Paradigm
Attentional Blink
When 2 stimuli are presented quickly after one another, it becomes difficult to report seeing the 2nd one
Overt Attention
vs.
Covert Attention
Attending to something with eye movements

Attending to something without using eye movements
Volitional Attention
vs.
Reflexive Attention
Controlled, willful attention

Automatic attention
Sequential Attention Hypothesis
Model of attention in which COVERT ATTENTION occurs 1st and then OVERT ATTENTION follows 2nd
Saccades
Random, rapid eye movements
Physiological Nystagmus
Small, continuous eye movements that occur during fixation
Moving Window Technique
A 'window' moves across text, limiting how much can be seen at a given time

Reading ability is affected at <20 letters at a time
Quiet Eye
Sustained, steady eye gaze prior to an action/behavior
Location Suppressed Hypothesis
The idea that the quiet eye 1ST gather as much info about a target and then 2ND inhibits vision to prevent distractions

ex: basketball player or golfer
Inhibition of Return (IOR)
Attention in inhibited from returning to a recently attended to stimulus
Feature Search
vs.
Conjunction Search
Target has a characteristic unique from all the distractors

Target shares all its characteristics with at least one other distractor
Rapid Visual Stream Presentation (RSVP)
same as Attentional Blink

quickly presenting a stimulus right after another, making it difficult to perceive the 2nd one
Hemispatial Neglect
unilateral damage to the parietal lobe

causes neglect of info in the contralesional side of the viewing field
Balint's Syndrome
Bilateral damage to the parietal lobe

Causes people to only see 1 object at a time and unable to report on object location/movement
Mystic Writing Pad
vs.
Reappearance Hypothesis
Memory is NOT an exact replication but rather constructed from bits and pieces

Memory is an EXACT replication of what was previously experienced
Flashbulb Memories
Vivid, detailed memories of significant events
Now Print Theory
The process by which flashbulb memories are created

Similar to carbon-copying
Method of Repeated Reproduction
vs.
Method of Serial Reproduction
A person is made to recall something many times over a long time period

Person A writes down something they recall...Person B reads that and later writes it down...etc

BOTH LEAD TO DECREASING CONSISTENCY OVER TIME
Schema Theory + Memory

4 step process
1) SELECTION
-We select info to remember based on our schema at the time (remember this bullshit only because it is exam time)

2) ABSTRACTION
-We convert incoming info into a form that is easier to remember

3) INTERPRETATION
-We make inferences about incoming info when we interpret it and these inferences are stored with the info

4) INTEGRATION
-we store our subjective meaning of the info with everything else to form one consistent memory
(Gestalt "whole" idea)
Misinformation Effect
Misleading POST-EVENT info can become integrated with the original event
False Memories
Incorrect memories due to forgetting the SOURCE of the info
Source Monitoring Framework
Process by which people fail to distinguish between a real and imagined event

aka process by which false memories are created

Due to faulty source monitoring
Yerkes-Dawson Law
Optimal performance for attention/memory occurs at MEDIUM levels of AROUSAL
Jost's Law of Forgetting
Of 2 memory traces, the younger trace will decay (be forgotten) faster, and the rate of decay declines over time
Ribot's Law of Retrograde Amnesia
Older memories are less likely to be affected by brain damage
Law of Progressions and Pathologies
The most recent memories are 1st to show signs of decay
Permastore (Bahrick)
A state of permanence that some information reaches where it will no longer decay
Permastore Study
Spanish students forgot what they learned for the first 3-6 years after stopping Spanish class, but then there was no info loss over the next 25 years (permastore status)
Echoic Memory

Iconic Memory
Auditory Stimulus Information

Visual Stimulus Information
Proactive Interference

Retroactive Interference
Inability to recall new information due to information experienced in the past

Inability to recall old information due to learning new information recently
Brown and Peterson Task
People are given 3 letters to remember and then told to count backwards by 3's (retroactive interference)

Leads to inability to recall the 3 letters
Serial Position Effect
When memorizing words, recall is best...(in this order)

Recency Effect
Primacy Effect
Middle Words
Principle of Encoding Specificity (Tulving)
The way we recall a memory depends on how the original memory was stored
(with a specific cue)
Anoetic Consciousness
Procedural Memory
Implicit Memory
Knowing what to do but not being able to articulate it

Ex: riding a bike
Noetic Consciousness
Semantic Memory
Explicit Memory
Knowing what you are doing and how/why you know how to do it

Ex: math
Autonoetic Consciousness
Episodic Memory
Remembering your own past and seeing a future
Prefrontal Leucotomy
Disconnects the PFC

Ruins autonoetic consciousness (episodic memory)
Exaptations
Pre-existing memory traits originally meant to serve other functions
Baldwin Effect
Process by which changes in an individual's life can influence subsequent evolution in future generations

(explains how episodic memory came from semantic memory)
Evolution of Memory
Semantic -> Episodic
Method of Opposition
People are shown a list of words under full/divided attention

Later they are told to complete word stems NOT using the original words

Divided attention = lack of conscious control
Quillan's Teachable Language Comprehender (TLC)
Computer program for semantic memory

Sees semantic memory as having 3 elements

1) Units (nouns, etc)
2) Properties (adjectives)
3) Pointers (connections between units and properties)
The Fan Effect
The more meaningful something is = the more connections it has to other concepts (the bigger its "fan") = the weaker each individual association (connection) is, the less likely that activation of a random concept on the "fan" will activate the original thing
Propositional Network
A network of relationships between concepts
Phonological Loop
Stores linguistic/verbal info with a limited capacity

Draws on verbal info from the LTM
Visua-Spatial Sketchpad
stores non-verbal info with a limited capacity

draws on semantic memory from the LTM
Episodic Buffer
Moves info between EPISODIC memory and LTM
Fluid Systems
vs.
Crystallized Systems
Fluid - systems that only manipulate info and are unchanged by learning (they do not store info)

Crystallized - Systems that accumulate long-term knowledge and episodic memory
Associative Deficit Hypothesis
Older people have a harder time creating and using links between single units of info

aka their propositional network fails
Amnesic Syndrome
Effects explicit memory more than implicit

-able to do a math problem but now able to recall how they knew how to do it
Disconnection Syndrome
Occurs when amnesic patients learn new info but are unaware any learning took place
Dual-Coding Theory (Paivio)
Both VERBAL and NON-VERBAL information can be used to represent events

The 2 systems are connected (referential connections)
Referential Connections
Info from 1 of the systems (verbal/non-verbal) can influence the other system
Logogens
vs.
Imagens
Logogens
-Used by the VERBAL system for incoming verbal info
-Operate NON-SIMULTANEOUSLY

Imagens
-Used by the NON-VERBAL system for incoming non-verbal info
-Operate SIMULTANEOUSLY
Concreteness
How easily a word can be transcribed into a mental image

(chair = highly concrete)
(joy = less concrete)
Concrete vs. Abstract Words
and
Dual-Coding Theory
Concrete words can be interpreted by BOTH verbal and non-verbal systems

Abstract words can only be interpreted by the NON-VERBAL system
Method of Loci
Mnemonics method

Uses associations between objects and places

Ex: the dog jumped over the moon
Von Restorff Effect
Recall for bizarre+ordinary words is much better than recall for only bizarre or only ordinary words
Special Places Strategy
Mnemonic technique

Just uses an object and a location WITHOUT an association between the two
Method of Loci
vs.
Special Places Strategy
M of L - uses associations
(ex: keys are dancing in fridge)

SPS - makes no association
(ex: simply keys are in fridge)
Chromaesthasia
The experience of color in response to an auditory stimulus
Inducers
&
Concurrents
Inducers - The cue that elicits a synaesthetic experience (becoming angry)

Concurrent - The synaesthetic response itself (seeing red)
Apoptosis
The theory that synaesthesia is the result of incomplete pruning of synaptic connections
Strong vs. Weak
Synaesthetes
Strong - classical type, (ex: seeing red when angry)

Weak - sensing laughter as 'brighter' than silence
Icon
A 'snapshot' of a visual stimulus that persists for a short time
Eidetic Imagery
Photographic memory

A long lasting mental 'scan' that can be looked over at a later time
Cognitive Dedifferentiation
When functions that typically work separately are fused instead

(ex: synaethesia)
Readiness to Perceive Something Study
Participants are made to image a letter superimposed on a grid

Then a dot is flashed in a box either in or outside where the imagined letter would lie

Response time is much shorter if the dot falls in a "covered" box
Analog Form of Representation
+
what is an Analog
Analogs embody the relationship of the thing it represents

Mental images may be analogs of real world situations
Egocentric Perspective Transformation
The act of "moving yourself around" within an imagined scene

(ex: picturing yourself in your kitchen to remember whether you turned the stove off)

Imagining stuff ABOVE or BELOW us is EASY

Imagining stuff to the LEFT, RIGHT, or BEHIND us is HARD
Path Integration
The process by which a person's location is constantly updated in their mind in relation to a landmark so as to aid moving through their environment
Bottom-Up vs. Top-Down
&
Language
We construct our own sentences BOTTOM-UP
(putting together all the pieces to say what we want to)

We understand others's speech TOP-DOWN
(taking their whole sentences and breaking them down to understand)
Phrase Structure Rules
Rules for how sentences must be constructed
Terminal String
The final string of words in a sentence
Kernel Sentences
THe most basic sentences that HAVE NOT undergone any grammatical transformations
Competence vs. Performance
Competence - ability to use internalized rules (grammar) for speech and listening

Performance - competence + use of experience and understanding of the situation to better understand others
Deep Structure vs. Surface Structure
+
Listening/Speaking
Surface - the words themselves
Deep - the meaning within the words

When we SPEAK - we turn DEEP structures (our intentions) into SURFACE structures (words that we speak)

When we LISTEN - we turn SURFACE structures (the words we hear) into DEEP structures (what we infer the meaning to be)
Poverty of Stimulus Argument
The verbal environment a child is exposed to lacks enough stimuli for them to learn language on their own
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Innate device from which a child can learn a language
Hypothesis of Minimalism
Human language may be computationally perfect for relating sound to meaning
Parameter Setting Theory
There is a universal standard language

There are PARAMETERS that can be set to different values (ex: noun location is a parameter)

Every different language is simply the universal language with different parameter settings

Whichever settings a child is exposed to most is what they adopt as their native language
Concealing Function of Language
Language is a type of code

Knowing the language's parameter settings is the only way to 'unlock' the code
Chomsky's Evolution of Language (3)
1) Sensory-Motor System
-Allows us to perceive and produce speech

2) Conceptual-Intentional System
-Allows us to grasp the meaning of speech and act on it

3) Uniquely Human System
-RECURSION - Allows us to make infinite sentences by simply putting simple sentences together
Code Model of Communication
1) the speakers thoughts are encoded into words

2) the words become a signal that travels through the air to the listener

3) the listener decodes the signal to infer the speaker's original message

**assumes the speaker+listener share common knowledge
Inferential Model of Communication
Based on INTENTIONS of the speaker and INFERENCES the listener makes
4 Conversational Maxims
1) Maxim of Quantity
-speaker attempts to say no more than what is necessary

2) Maxim of Quality
-Speaker attempts to be truthful

3) Maxim of Relation
-Speaker attempts to be relevant

4) Maxim of Manner
-Speaker attempts to avoid ambiguity
Co-operative Principle
We assume other speakers follow the 4 maxims, aiding us in understanding what the intend
Pretense Theory of Irony
vs.
Standard Theory of Irony
When speaking ironically, the speaker only pretends to mean what they say

Listeners 1st take ironic speaker literally, 2nd they realize it cannot be literal, 3rd they assume the speaker means the opposite
**depends on shared knowledge
Zone of Proximal Development
The difference between what a child could learn on their own and what they can learn with the help of a more capable person
Metalinguistic Awareness
&
Metalanguage
When we use language to talk about other language
ex: similes and metaphors
Surface Dyslexia
vs.
Phonological Dyslexia
Surface - deficit in the ability to read WHOLE WORDS

Phono - deficit in the ability to sound out PHONEMES

(they either know the word or they don't - sounding out is not an option)
Dual Route Theory (of reading)
Suggest we use 2 methods when reading
1 - comparing words to our lexicon
2 - sounding out words by their phonemes
Linguistic Relativity
People judge/perceive situations based on the words that are used to describe them
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
2 languages may be sooo different from each other that speakers from each language may perceive the world differently

(ex: eskimos have 14 words for snow = polysemy)
Berlin-Kay Order
Color words develop in a predictable, stable sequence
(ex: black, white, red, green...)

FALSE
1) Intrinsic Frame of Reference

2) Relative Frame of Reference

3) Absolute Frame of Reference
1) Simply the location relationship between 2 items
-the man is next to the couch

2) Described in relation to the observer's POV
-the man is to the left of the couch

3) Described in objective terms
-the man is west of the couch
Selective Access
vs.
Non-Selective Access

(for bilinguals)
Selective - ONE lexicon activated

Non-Selective - BOTH lexicons activated
Homographs
&
Cognates
Homographs - words that LOOK the SAME and have DIFFERENT MEANINGS

Cognates - words that LOOK the SAME and have the SAME MEANINGS
Homographs / Cognates

Selective Access / Non-Selective Access
HOMOGRAPHS
-Selective Access -> NO INTERFERENCE
-Non-Selective Access -> INTERFERENCE

COGNATES
-Selective Access -> NO FACILITATION
-Non-Selective Access -> FACILITATION
Maya's Study
Checked interference/facilitation effects for cognates/homographs
Dual Route Theory (of reading)
Suggest we use 2 methods when reading
1 - comparing words to our lexicon
2 - sounding out words by their phonemes
Linguistic Relativity
People judge/perceive situations based on the words that are used to describe them
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
2 languages may be sooo different from each other that speakers from each language may perceive the world differently

(ex: eskimos have 14 words for snow = polysemy)
Berlin-Kay Order
Color words develop in a predictable, stable sequence
(ex: black, white, red, green...)

FALSE
1) Intrinsic Frame of Reference

2) Relative Frame of Reference

3) Absolute Frame of Reference
1) Simply the location relationship between 2 items
-the man is next to the couch

2) Described in relation to the observer's POV
-the man is to the left of the couch

3) Described in objective terms
-the man is west of the couch
Selective Access
vs.
Non-Selective Access

(for bilinguals)
Selective - ONE lexicon activated

Non-Selective - BOTH lexicons activated
Homographs
&
Cognates
Homographs - words that LOOK the SAME and have DIFFERENT MEANINGS

Cognates - words that LOOK the SAME and have the SAME MEANINGS
Homographs / Cognates

Selective Access / Non-Selective Access
HOMOGRAPHS
-Selective Access -> NO INTERFERENCE
-Non-Selective Access -> INTERFERENCE

COGNATES
-Selective Access -> NO FACILITATION
-Non-Selective Access -> FACILITATION
Maya's Study
Checked interference/facilitation effects for cognates/homographs
Isomorphic Problems
Problems that are very similar to each other
Productive Thinking
Thinking in ways that apply to whatever CURRENT situation you are in
Structurally Blind Thinking
Thinking in ways that apply to OTHER situations but NOT your current situation
Wertheimer's 2 types of thinking
Productive Thinking
(based on current situation)

Structurally Blind Thinking
(based on other situations)
2 conditions necessary for hint to be useful
1) Must be CONSISTENT with person's direction of thinking

2) Must respond to an already experienced difficulty
Feeling of Warmth
Feeling that you are 'getting warm' (nearing a solution)

For insight problems you do not 'feel warm' until after you have reached the solution
Feeling of Knowing
Feeling that you are capable of solving a problem

Does not occur with insight problems
Progress Monitoring Theory
1) People take the most straightforward approach

2) If/when people reach a "wall" they begin to consider other possible solutions

3) The faster they hit a "wall", the faster an insightful solution can come about
Representational Change Theory
Insight requires restructuring of the way we think represent a problem (2 possible ways)

1) Constraint Relaxation
-removing assumptions that block the true solution

2) Chunk Decomposition
-breaking the problem down into smaller parts and dealing with each part separately
The ACC (anterior cingulate cortex)
+
Insight
The ACC detects conflict between normal ways of thinking and insightful ways
Einstellung Effect
Tendency to develop a "rigid set" after solving a problem the same way many times

Creates inflexibility for thinking about future problems
Negative Transfer
Tendency to respond with previously learned solution processes even though they no longer apply

aka applying rigid sets
Strong but Wrong Tendency
Tendency to apply an over-learned response when you do not intend to

ex: checking the time on your phone rather than your brand new watch
Search Tree
A representation of all possible solution paths from an original problem
Tower of Hanoi
-requires what process?
Chunk Decomposition
General Problem Solving (GPS)
-Production Rules
-Means-End Analysis
Production Rules
-Consists of a condition and an action (ex: solution reached > stop)

Means-End Analysis
-attempts to reduce the difference between current state and goal/solution state
BACON
Computational model that searches for patterns between 2 variables
Face Valid
Computational method that measures what it is intended to and nothing else
Zeigarnik Effect
Tendency to finish incomplete tasks
Protocol
Verbal description of a person's solution process
Syllogistic Reasoning
consists of 2 premises and a conclusion
4 forms of premises for syllogistic reasoning
Universal Affirmative
All A are B
Universal Negative
No A are B
Particular Affirmative
Some A are B
Particular Negative
Some A are not B
Practical Syllogism
Occurs when conclusions from syllogistic reasoning leads to an action in real life
Transitive Relations
premises based on relational comparisons
(ex: A is greater than B)
Mental Models Theory
-Iconic
-Emergent Consequences
-Parsimony
Iconic
-Relationships between elements of the mental model correspond to relationships between elements in the situation the model represents

Emergent Consequences
-You can get more out of a mental model than what you originally put in

Parsimony
-tending to construct the simplest mental model possible
Watson's Puzzles
-The Generative Problem
-Card Selection Task
The Generative Problem
-a problem in which people are not provided any info about how to "solve" the problem
(ex: being told that 3 numbers conform to a simple rule)

Card Selection Task
-shown 4 cards and needing to find the rule relating the front of the cards to the backs
Law of Large Numbers

Law of Small Numbers
Large - the larger the sample from a population, the closer a statistic will be to the true value

Small - FALSE belief that a small sample will be highly representative of the population from which it is drawn
Hot-Hand Belief

Hot-Hand Behavior
Belief - the thought that if a basketball player just made a shot, they will likely make the next shot too (hot-streaks)

Behavior - the idea that if a basketball player just made a shot they will likely shoot again
Regression towards the mean
If an extreme value is produced on a given trial, the next value will be closer to the mean

ex: if you have a really tall kid, your next kid will be closer to average height
Stanford-Binet Test of Intelligence
Developed IQ
IQ = ?
IQ = (mental age / chronological age x 100)
Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence
People have two types of intelligence
General Intelligence (g)
-varies between individuals

Specific Intelligence
-varies between and within individuals
Crystallized Intelligence
Consists of what you have learned

Grows throughout one's life
Fluid Intelligence
The ability to think flexibly

Same as general intelligence

increases in youth but becomes stable in adulthood
Eduction
A component of general intelligence

Our ability to 'draw-out' relationships in new situations
Raven Progressive Matrices Test
Most accepted test of g

Measures ability for eduction
The Flynn Effect
typical IQ scores have been increasing over time

actual g has started to reach potential g
3 Intellectual Components
1) Metacomponents
-executive components used for planning, monitoring, and decision making

2) Performance Components
-used in the execution of a task

3) Knowledge Acquisition Components
-Used for learning, and storing of new information
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory
-3 types of intelligence
Analytic Intelligence
-book smart
-closely related to g

Creative Intelligence
-ability to reason out new problems

Practical Intelligence
-used in familiar everyday thinking
Entrenched Concepts
Concepts that strike us as simple and easy to understand
Successful Intelligence
When all 3 types of intelligence are fairly high
Theory of Multiple Intelligences
-proven by...?
-criticisms
Prodigies
-if you can be REALLY good at one thing and average at other things than there must be multiple intelligences

-said to be too focussed on talents/gifts and not enough on general intelligence
Ur-Song
the idea that there is a song that all children can innately sing
Blind Variation
The process by which alternatives are explored without knowing in advance how they will turn out

Pure trial and error
Price's Law
The idea that half of all contributions in a given field will be produced by the square root of the total number of workers in the field
Remote Associations
+
Creativity
Remote associations are the uncommon/random associations between things that we don't usually think about

The more often you think of these remote associations, the more creative you are
Flat Hierarchies
The idea that we think of things in a hierarchy fashion with common things at the top and more uncommon things (remote associations) at the bottom

Creative people have 'flat hierarchies' meaning they are just as likely to think of remote associations as normal ones
Stages in the Creative Process
1) Preparation
-the problem is formulated
2) Incubation
-the problem isn't consciously thought of but is worked on unconsciously
3) Illumination
-The point where a useful idea first emerges
4) Verification
-The soundness of an idea is evaluated
Oops, I did it again effect
A habitual action sequence that may become activated without us intending

ex: walking home even though you rode your bike
Faulty Formulation of Intentions
(2 types)
Mode Errors
-Carrying out an action that would be appropriate in another situation but not in the current one
(ex: picking up your phone and saying "come in")

Description Errors
-Errors that occur because we do not have enough understanding of the situation
(ex: punching someone because you think they are yelling at you but they are yelling at someone else)
Faulty Activation of a Schema
-capture errors
When familar schema becomes activated in place of the correct schema
Inappropriately Triggered Schema
-Anticipation Errors
Anticipating a future course of action, screwing up the current course of action

Ex: imagining the next word you are going to type, fucking up your current word
Spoonerism
A type of anticipation error where an entire sequence of words is thought of before they are actually said, causing you to jumble them
Molar/Molecular Behavior
Molar - our general behavior
(ex: going to school)

Molecular - our specific behaviors
(ex: riding a bike to school)
Antecedents
Factors that combine in a unique way to cause a given outcome
Cleopatra's Nose Problem
You can think up any number of hypothetical events that COULD have occurred in history without ever being sure what the different outcome would be
Cognitive Ergonomics
Used to understand USER INTERFACES aka the connection between human and machine
Fitt's Law
Describes the difficulty of moving a pointer to a specific location

Based on distance to target and size of target
Foresight Bias
Tendency to believe you will remember something if you see it now
Region of Proximal Learning
Tendency for people to work on tasks of MEDIUM difficulty
Spacing Effect
Distribution of learning over several different sessions

Leads to better memory
Massed Practice
vs.
Distributed Practice
Massed Practice - re-reading immediately after seeing something (good for if the exam is very soon)

Distributed - Re-reading a little while after 1st seeing something (good if the exam is a ways away)
Designing a User Interface
-Recognition
-Modularity
-Consistency
Recognition
-The degree to which a user can tell what is going on just by looking

Modularity
-Degree to which something can be broken down into parts

Consistency
-The degree to which a user can understand an entire system by only learning one part
Rampant Featurism
Tendency for user interfaces to have wayyyy more shit then will ever be needed/used
Social Brain Hypothesis
aka
Machiavellian Intelligence Hypothesis
Increased cortical matter in the brain may be due to an increasing social structure
VMPFC
Phineas Gage damaged this

Changed his personality, manners, and ability to plan for the future
Somatosensory Cortex
Judges and recognizes facial expressions and emotions in others