Cog Psych

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partial-report procedure

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an experimental procedure in which participants are cued to report only some of the items in a display (sperling)

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whole-report procedure

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a procedure in which participants are asked to report all the items of a display (sperling)

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visual memory store

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a memory system that effectively holds all the information in a visual array for a very brief period of time (about a second) (sperling)

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iconic memory

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another term for visual memory store

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auditory sensory store

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a memory system that effectively holds all the information heard for a brief period of time

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echoic memory

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another term for auditory sensory store

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short-term memory

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a proposed intermediate memory system that holds information as it travels from sensory memory to long-term memory (atkinson and shriffin)

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memory span

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refers to the number of elements one can immediately repeat back

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depth of processing

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the theory that memory for information is improved if the information is processed at deeper levels of analysis (craik and lockhart)

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working memory

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the information that is currently available in memory for working on a problem (baddeley)

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procedural knowledge

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knowledge of how to perform various tasks

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declarative memory

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explicit knowledge of various facts

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three stages of development of a skill (plus definitions of each)

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1. cognitive stage - develop declarative encoding, a set of facts relevant to the skill and they rehearse these facts when they perform the skill
2. associative stage - declarative representation of a skill is converted into a procedural representation
3. autonomous stage - procedure becomes more and more automated and rapid
*Anderson 1983, Fitts and Posner, 1967

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proceduralization

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the process of converting the deliberate use of declarative knowledge into pattern-driven recognition (fitts and posner)

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tactical learning

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the learning of sequences of actions that help solve a problem

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strategic learning

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learning how to organize one's problem solving for a specific class of problems

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deliberate practice

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the kind of practice that Ericsson postulated to be critical for the development of expertise. this practice is highly motivated and includes careful self-monitoring

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theory of identical elements

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the theory that there will be transfer from one skill to another only to the extent that the skills have the same knowledge elements have in common (thorndike)

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negative transfer

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poor learning of a second task as a function of having learned a first task

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componential analysis

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an approach to instruction that begins with an analysis of the individual elements that need to be learned

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mastery learning

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the effort to bring students to mastery of each element in a curriculum before promoting them to new material in the curriculum

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intelligent tutoring systems

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a computer system that combines cognitive models with techniques from artificial intelligence to create instructional interactions with students (sleeman and brown)

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three essential features of problem solving (specifically for monkey pole problem)

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1. goal directedness
2. subgoal decomposition
3. operator application
(sultan)

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operator

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refers to an action that will transform the problem state into another problem state

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problem space

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a representation of the various sequences of problem solving

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state

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a term in problem solving used to refer to a representation of the problem in some degree of solution

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goal state

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a state in a problem space in which the goal is satisfied

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search

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the process by which one finds a sequence of operators to solve a problem

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search trees

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a representation of the net of states that can be reached by applying operators to an initial state

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analogy

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the process by which a problem solver extracts the operators used to solve one problem and maps them onto a solution for another problem

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backup avoidance

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the tendency in problem solving to avoid operators that take one back to a state already visited

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difference reduction

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the tendency in problem solving to select operators that eliminate a difference between the current state and the goal

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means-end analysis

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term used to describe the creation of a new goal (end) to enable an operator (means) to apply

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hill climbing

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the tendency to choose operators in problem solving that transform the current state into a new state more similar to the goal

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general problem solver (GPS)

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problem-solving simulation program created by Newell and Simon that embodies means-end analysis

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tower of hanoi problem

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a problem solving task in which disks are moved along pegs

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functional fixedness

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the tendency to represent objects as serving conventional problem-solving functions and thus failing to see them as serving novel functions

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set effect

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the biasing of a solution to a problem as a result of past experiences in solving that kind of problem

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Einstellung effect

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the term used by Luchins to refer to the set effect, in which people will repeat a solution that has worked for previous problems even when a simpler solution is possible

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incubation effects

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the phenomenon that sometimes a solution to a particular problem comes more easily after a period of time in which one has stopped trying to solve the problem (silveira damonstration)

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insight problem

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one in which people are not aware that they are close to a solution (metcalfe and weibe)

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syllogisms

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a logical argument consisting of two premises and a conclusion

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deductive reasoning

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concerned with conclusions that follow with certainty from their premises

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inductive reasoning

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concerned with conclusions that probabilistically follow from their premises

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conditional statement

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an assertion (if, then)

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antecedent

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the if part

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consequent

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the then part

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modus ponens

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the rule of logic stating that, if a conditional statement is true and its antecedent is true, then its consequent must be true

if A then B and given A we can infer that B if true

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modus tollens

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the rule of logic stating that, if a conditional statement is true and its consequent is false, then its antecedent must be false

if A then B and the fact that B is false, we can infer that A is false

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selection task

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a task in which a participant is given a conditional statement of the form if A then B and must choose which situations among A, B, not A and not B need to be checked to test the truth of the conditional (wason)

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categorical syllogism

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a syllogism consisting of statements that have logical quantifiers in which one premise relates A to B, another relates B to C, and the conclusion relates A to C

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atmosphere hypothesis

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the logical terms (some, all, no, and not) used in the premises of a syllogism create an "atmosphere" that predisposes participants to accept conclusions having the same terms (woodworth and sells)

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mental model theory

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johnson-laird's theory that participants judge a syllogism by imagining a world that satisfies the premises and seeing if the conclusion is satisfied in that world

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permission schema

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an interpretation of a conditional statement in which the antecedent specifies the situations in which the consequent is permitted (cheng and holyoak)

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logical quantifiers

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an element such as all, no, some, and some not that appears in such statements as All A are B

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productivity

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refers to the fact that an infinite number of utterances are possible in any language

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regularity

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refers to that fact that utterances are systematic in many ways

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linguistics

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attempts to characterize the nature of language

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grammar

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a set of rules that prescribe all the acceptable utterances of a language. consists of syntax, semantics and phonology

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syntax

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concerns word order and inflection

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semantics

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concerns the meaning of sentences

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phonology

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concerns the sound structure of sentences

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linguistic intuitions

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judgements about the nature of linguistic utterances or about the relations between linguistic utterances

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competence

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a person's abstract knowledge of the language

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performance

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the actual application of knowledge of language in speaking or listening

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phrase structure

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the hierarchical organization of a sentence into a set of units called phrases, sometimes represented as a tree structure

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transformations

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a linguistic rule that moves a term from one part of a sentence to another

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what is so special about human language?

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-semanticity and arbitrariness of units
-displacement in time and space
-discreteness and productivity

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linguistic determinism

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the claim that language determines or strongly influences the way that a person thinks or perceives the world

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modularity

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the proposal that language is a component separate from the rest of cognition. it further argues that language comprehension has an initial phase in which only syntactic considerations are brought to bear

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language universals

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a property that all natural languages satisfy (chomsky)

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natural languages

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a language that can be acquired and spoken by humans

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parameter setting

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the proposal that children learn a language by learning the setting of 100 or so parameters that define a natural language

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parsing

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the process by which the words in a linguistic message are transformed into a mental representation of their combined meaning

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utilization

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the process by which language comprehenders respond to the meaning of a linguistic message

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3 stages of the comprehension process

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-the perceptual processes by which the acoustic or written message is encoded
-parsing
-utilization

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constituents

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a subpattern that corresponds to a basic phrase, or unit, in a sentence's surface structure

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immediacy of interpretation

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people try to extract meaning out of each word as it arrives and do not wait until the end of a sentence or even the end of a phrase to decide on how to interpret a word. (just and carpenter eye fixation study)

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N400

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a negativity in the event-related potential (ERP) at about 400 ms after the processing of a semantically difficult word (kutas and federmeier)

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center-embedded sentence

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the clause is embedded in another clause (eg the boy the girl liked was sick)

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P600

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a positivity in the event-related potential at about 600 ms after the processing of a syntactically difficult word

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transient ambiguity

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refers to ambiguity in a sentence that is resolved by the end of the sentence

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garden-path sentences

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a sentence with a transient ambiguity that causes us to make the wrong interpretation initially and then have to correct ourselves

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principle of minimal attachment

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one interprets a sentence in a way that causes minimal complication of its phrase structure

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interactive processing

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the position that semantic and syntactic cues are simultaneously brought to bear in interpreting a sentence

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backward inferences

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connect the current sentence with prior sentences or to general background knowledge (singer)

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forward inferences

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add information which may or may not be needed to connect to future material (singer)

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Kintsch and van Dijk's text comprehension model

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their model assumes that parsing processes have been applied to analyze the text into a set of propositions, and their analysis focuses on the further processing of the text after the initial set of propositions has been identified

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bridging inference

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an inference that connects two parts of the text (haviland and clark)