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558 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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afferent vs. efferent
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afferent - info from receptor to cns aka sensory or receptor neurons
efferent - exit cns towards aka motor neurons |
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agenesis of the corpus collosum
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birth without corpus collosum
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alpha oscillations of eeg
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appear during wakeful relaxation
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amygdala re: fear conditioning
what part of brain does it belong to? |
important for memory, emotional reactions, emotional learning
part of lymbic system |
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Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
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degeneration of upper and lower motor neurons
also known as Lou Gehrig's Disease |
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anencephaly
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neural tube fails to close
child is born with no forebrain |
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anton's syndrome
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brain damage occurring in the occipital lobe results in cortical blindness, however the patient doesn't accept that they are blind
eyes and much of visual cortex is still in tact |
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astrocyte
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bbb - blood-brain barrier
homeostatic role - request blood when needed glial cell in the brain that supports neurons supports/modulates synapses |
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Barbas, Helen
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The brain is wrinkled due to tension on nerve fibers which help the brain form gyri and sulci during fir 6 months of development
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Gall, Franz Joseph
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Father of phrenology - early 1800s
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basal ganglia
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significant role in the control of movement
globus pallidus, caudate nucleus, putamen (last two known together as neostriatum) not a direct projection pathway, rather important in monitoring/modulating motor activity and nonmotoric functions while they are in progress |
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BOLD signal
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blood-oxygen dependent response
aka event-related fMRI used in ERP (event-related potential) studies |
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...
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...
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bones/plates of the skull
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frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital
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Brodmann, Korbinian
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early 1900s histologist
produced cytoarchitectonic map of 52 regions of brain cells based groupings on density, shape, layering |
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Ramon y Cajal
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famous histologist
claimed that the neuron was the fundamental unit of the nervous system noted axon spikes strong advocate of Neuron Doctrine using Camillo Golgi's methods discovered unidirectional transmission of information discovered axonal growth cone supporting the theory of nerve cell contact |
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Capgras Syndrome
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dillusion that an imposter has replaced a familiar friend
[somebody captured graceless my friend] |
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Central sulcus
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fissure between frontal and parietal lobe
separates motor cortex from sensory cortex separates pre-central and post-central gyri |
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Cerebellum
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caudal part of brain important in motor control and coordination... and equilibrium
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cerebrum, cerebral cortex, cerebral hemispheres
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cerebrum or telencephalon, along with diencephalon constitute forebrain
most of the top of the neural tube newer part of brain essential for advanced procedures and cognitions |
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ion channels
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regulate electrochemical differentials
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voltage-gated channels
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channels activated by electrical charge
closed at resting membrane potential however open during a deploraization, leading to further depolarization they allow an influx of sodium ions the low level of sodium in the cell pulls tons of sodium in leading to a strong depolarization |
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mechanically gated channels
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channels activated by changes in cell membrane
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ligand-gated channel
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channels activated by ligands such as neurotransmitters
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CTE - Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy
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condition resulting from repeated concussions
results in depression, dementia and erratic behavior |
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Columns (in organization of cerebral cortex)
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mini columns and hyper columns
cortical columns have 6 layers of neurons, each of which have a particular type of cell |
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concussion
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head injury resulting in a temporary loss of brain function
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contralateralization
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left hemisphere of brain controls the right side of the body
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corpus callosum
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commissure conntect two hemispheres
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cranial nerves
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nerves that emerge directly from the brain as opposed to passing through the spinal cord
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cytoarchitectonics
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histological study of cell anatomy
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day-dreaming or idling-activity of the brain
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electroencephalopathy states such idling is consistent with theta waves (not alpha which is relaxation)
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DTI - Diffusion tensor imaging
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measures restricted diffusion of water thereby enabling neural tract imaging
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brain orientation
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dorsal, ventral, rostral, caudal
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lateralization
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ipsi
contra |
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dopamine
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catecholamine neurotransmiter
important for: cognition, motivation, voluntary movement, punishment, reward cannot cross the blood-brain barrier |
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dopaminergic system of the brain
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origin substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area
dopamine produced in soma transmitted throughout the brain |
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ventral horn
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part of the spinal column with motor neurons
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dorsal horn
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contains many sensory neurons and interneurons
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drug action - stimulate and activate receptors
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agonists
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drug action - stop the agonists from stimulating receptors
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antagonists
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eeg - electroencephalography
neural origin limitations of a research tool |
detects large partterns in neuron firing
helpful in determining the origin of seizure, the diagnosis of a coma, and brain death |
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Engel, Howard
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stroke left him with alexia sine agraphia
he eventually taught himelf to read again first by tracing words with an implement and later by tracing words with minute movements of his tongue |
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cell absorption of molecules from the extracellular space
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endocytosis
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EPSP - excititory post-synaptic potential
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an action potential that reaches the axon terminal in a presynaptic cell and encourages the post-synaptic cell to fire
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cell depolarization
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in-flow of positively charged ions
sodium |
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hyperpolarization
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in-flow of negatively charged ions or efflux of positive ions making the membrane potential of the cell more negative
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action potential
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depolarization of cell which moves towards or past the axon hillock
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Event related potential - ERP
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correlation of brain activity to a certain activity by eliciting certain brain activity repeatedly over many trials and observing brain activity
electrophysiological response to an internal or external stimulus |
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movement of molecules from the intracellular space to the intercellular space
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exocytosis
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extrastriate cortex
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region of the occipital cortex located next to striate cortex.
important for visual processing includes v2, v3, v4, mt Brodmann area 18-19 |
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important fissures
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inter-hemispheric fissure
sylvian fissure |
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fMRI vs MRI
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function MRI measures changes in blood flow
hemodynamics fMRI has low spacial resolution. also, not great temporal resolution |
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MRI
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powerful magnet aligns hydrogen atoms in water
radio waves then alter the alignment which causes rotating magnetic fields that are detectable to scanner |
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Fritsch and Hitzig
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performed experiments on a dog in 1870 in which the applied electric currents to a dogs exposed cortex and found M1, the primary motor cortex
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gama-aminobutyric acid - GABA
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principal inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
regulates neural excitability throughout the nervous system |
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text book author
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Michael Gazzaniga
important in initiating split-brain syndrome research |
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principle excitatory neurotransmitter
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glutamate
ltp, learning, memory [glue to your neural mate] |
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typically inhibitory neurotransmitter however may be excitatory co-agonist
where is it excitatory? |
glycine
can be co-agonist at NMDA receptor site [sly gly cine] |
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important gyri
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inferior temporal gyrus!!! (high ventral stream function!)
superior frontal gyrus middel frontal gyrus inferior frontal gyrus superior temporal gyrus pre-central and post-central gyri cingulate gyrus |
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histamine system
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neurotransmitter important for alertness!
antihistimines precipitate sleep! histamines originate in tuberomammillary nucleus of hypothalamus |
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brain areas that map physically to body
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topological oranization
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somatosensory/somatomotor topology
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homunculus
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hydrophobic
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molecules that tend to be nonpolar and are attracted to other such moelecules
phospholipid bilayer made possible by hydrophobic nature of lipids |
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invasive eegs
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intracranial EEG - iEEG
subdural electrode grid measures electric properties of neurons direclty |
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ion-gated channels???
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I think he means voltage-gated
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ionotrophic
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ie ligand-gated ion channels, mechanically gated channels
eats (trophic) ions |
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synaptic potential that decreases the likelihood of the post-synaptic nerve firing
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inhibitory post-synaptic potential - IPSP
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Judt, Tony
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suffers from Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
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knockout procedures
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gentically alter an animal such that some of its neurons don't develop
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A1 cortex fissure
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lateral or sylvian fissure
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brain lesions
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stroke,
caused by concussion IED or CEP, alzheimers tumor MS - demyelination of axons |
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Lidocaine
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local anesthetic that can relieve pain when administered intravenously
analgesic action blocks voltage-gated sodium channels (of a small diameter?) |
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Broca's area
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important for language production
damage can result in aphasia discovered by Paul Broca |
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Wernicke's area
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important in understanding written and spoken language
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ligand
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macromolecule important for biological functions
ie neurotransmitter |
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big sulcus between hemispheres
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longitudinal fissure
aka inter-hemispheric fissure |
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Loewi, Otto
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took two frog hearts and used the perfusate of one vagus nerve and used it to slow the rate of the second heart
discovery of neurotransmitters (spceifically acetylcholine ACh) |
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mechanically-gated channels and receptors
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open pores to ions in response to deformation in the plasma membrane
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meninges
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dura mater - thick durable membrane
arachnoid - spider web for cushioning pia mater - delicate membrane that adheres to the surface of the brain; impermeable to CSF |
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microglia
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macrophages of brain and spinal cord
20% of glia remove damaged neurons plaques nd infectious agents |
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midbrain
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tectum
tegmentum aka mesencephalon considered part of the brain stem closely associated with motor system pathways of the basal ganglia |
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multiple sclerosis
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demyelination of the axons of the neurons
inflammatory disease of the myelin sheath |
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myelin
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electrically insulating material that forms the myelin sheath around the axon of a neuron
schwann cells myelinate neurons in the pns oligodentrocytes myelinate in the cns |
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neocortex
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6-layer structure; highly organized
2-4 mm thick 90% of cerebral cotex most sophisticated part of the cerebral cortex involved in sensory perception, motor commands, spatial reasoning, conscious thought, language |
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neural tube
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neural plate -> forms neural groove -> closes to form neural tube
neonatal precursor to the nervous system |
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neuron doctrine
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idea that the nervous system is made up of individual discrete cells
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neurite
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any projection from neuron's soma
axon, dendrite |
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node of ranvier
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locations between myelinated sections of long axons
have many ion channels common in pnf - ie schwann cell gaps |
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olfactory bulb
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structure of forebrain used for the perception of odors
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Peek, Kim
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megasavant
eidetic memory no corpus callosum read books with one eye reading each page |
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PET - Positron Emission Tomography
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functional imaging method
gamma raised released by radioactive element low resolution both spacial and temporal can't repeat tests often |
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tomography
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imaging by sections by using a penetrating wave
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Posner, Michael
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tests involving likeness of two letters in terms of:
physical identity, phonetic identity, category conditions different comparisons occurred more quickly ->multiple representations of stimuli asynchronous exposure leads to faster comparisons -> some internal transformation has occurred |
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explain sodium potassium pump
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1. high affinity for sodium in cytosol - sodium binds
2. ATP binds a phosphate which cause the pump to reorient to extracellular space 3. new formation releases sodium and has a high affinity for potassium 4. once binds, it reforms, letting the phosphate go and releasing the potassium in the interior of the cell -active transport -moves against con gradient -requires 2/3 of neurons power -potassium and sodium are positive ions |
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post-central gyrus
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Brodmann areas 3, 1, 2
somatosensory cortex |
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pre-central gyrus
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Brodmann area 4
motor cortex |
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explain the different PSP
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excitatory/inhibitory post-synaptic potentials
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puffer fish
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sahsimi fugu
paralyze the diaphragm prevent the person from breathing tetradotoxin |
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pyramidal neuron, pyramidal cell
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important in the cortex, hippocampus and amygdala
triangular shaped soma primary excitation units of the prefrontal cortex and the corticospinal tract discovered by Ramon y Cajal |
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prefrontal cortex
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anterior part of he frontal lobes
in front of motor and premotor areas |
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receptive field
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region around a sensory neuron where a stimulus will affect the firing of that neuron
observed in the auditory system, somatosensory system, visual system |
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refractory period
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period of time after a neuron files when it isn't possible or is at least less likely that the neuron fires again
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period following neuron firing when a second potential can't be initiated
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absolute refractory period
deactivation of sodium ion channels these channels are closed and therefore won't allow a spike |
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period of time following one potential when a second potential is inhibited
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relative refractory period
caused by slow closure of potassium ion channels the resting membrane potential is even more negative than typical resting state |
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action potential/spike
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depolarizations that reach "threshold"
sodium channels open depolarizing cell and causing visicles to realeas NTs at axon terminal ion channels then open, allowing influx of sodium |
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all-or-none amplitude
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the size of the initial depolarization is irrelevant as long as it cross the threshold
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re-uptake inhibitor
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pre-synaptic cell doesn't reabsorb neurotransmitter, leading higher likely hood that the post-synaptic cell will reach another spike
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Sacks, Oliver
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Author of "The Man Who Must Read with His Toungue"
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Schwann cell
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glial cells that form myelin sheath in peripheral nervous system
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sections and plains through the brain
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horizontal, coronal, sagittal, mid-sagittal
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serotoninergic system
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originates in Raphe nucleus in the brain stem
[that's how Raph go through it--positive energy to the core] |
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MEG
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Magnetoencephalography
record magnetic fields produced by electrical currents |
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seratonin
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important for mood regulation
mice who lacked serotonin had stunted development, were more aggressive, and didn't care for their young |
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MAOI
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prevent the breakdown of monoamine neurotransmitters
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resting potential
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-70 mV
difference in charge crossing the membrane |
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threshold
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-55 mV
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spina bifida
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the bottom end of the neural tube doesn't close
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cerebrum
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also known as the telencephalon
dorsal telencephalon -> cerebral cortex ventral telencephalon -> basal ganglia also, left/right hemispheres |
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split-brain surgery
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a severe surgery option typically for epileptics
the result is relatively independent brains that can't communicate |
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striate cortex
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v1
Brodmann 17 essential for visual processing |
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Hodgkin-Huxley cycle
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positive depolarization feedback cycle
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ischemic stroke
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blood is blocked to a part of the brain
eg. embollus, thombosis, hypoprofusion |
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hemorrhagic stroke
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accumulation of blood anywhere within the skull
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stroop effect
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showing a color name in a different color makes it difficult to identify the color of the word
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subarachnoid space
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has channels of csf
interface been csf and vascular tissue important for blood brain barrier |
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sulcus
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invaginations of the brain
central sulcus interhemispheric fissure sylvian fissure |
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summation types
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spacial - multiple axons can help create an spike in postsynaptic nerve
temporal - rapid firing of the presynaptic nerve can enduce a spike |
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tonotopy
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topographic arrangement in A1 for processing sounds
arranged by frequency |
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sylvian fissure
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longer in left hemisphere
separates frontal, parietal and temporal lobes above Brodmann 41/42 or A1 |
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thalamus
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gateway to all senses except SMELL
main product of the diencephalon |
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topologies in the brain
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homunculi
v1 a1 |
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histology
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study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues
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tracers (histochemical)
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retrograde - start at the axon terminal ie horsefadish peroxidase
antetretrograde - start at the source or the cell body |
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TMS
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trans-cranial magnetic stimulation
user elctrical currents to depolarize a region of the brain through the skull ie if used in the motor cortex, it will evoke activity ie if used in the occipital lobe, it will evoke flashes of light |
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spike-triggering zone
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part of the neuron where the action potential is generated
many dendrites may contribute conduction to this zone |
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ventricles
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contains cerebrospinal fluid
continuous with central canal of spinal cord origin of neurons that give rise to the 6-layer cortex |
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vesicles
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sacs of membrain holding NTs
when action potential reaches axon terminal, they bind with the membrane and release the NTs (calcium ions induce the binding) |
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white matter
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myelinated axons
the fats ot the myelin are white |
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photographic memory
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eidetic memory
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aggregate field theory
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many parts of the brain are involved in a single thought or action
opposition to the localizationist school Flourens, Pierre |
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brainstem
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myelencephalon (medulla)
mesencephalon (pons, midbrain) important gateway for motor and sensory systems |
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schizophrenia
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affects 1% of population
both genetic and environmental etiologies cause: too much dopamine plays a role |
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saltatory conduction
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action potential moves down the axon
conduction at 120 meters/second jumps between nodes of ranvier |
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axon diameter and speed of conduction
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there is lower resistance inside a cell as the diameter of the axon grows -> therefore, conduction happens more quickly
however, it is inconceivable to have all axons of such diameter so instead myelination facilitates saltatory conduction |
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cognitive neuroscience
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study of the biological substrates underlying cognition
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behaviorism
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all activity is a behavior
should be studied without recourse to internal physiological events |
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Camillo Golgi
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an Italian who used a silver stain to identify neurons
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synctytium
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belief that the brain is a continuous mass of tissue with one cytoplasm
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contiguous not continuous
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Neuron Doctrine
Cajal's view not Golgi's view |
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Sherrington, Sir Charles
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focused on the neuron as a unit and coined the term synapse
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Miller, George Armitage
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father of wordnet and Miller's law: you must assume something is true and then determine what it is true of
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rationalism
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reliance on deduction and thought in pursuit of truth
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empiricism
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reliance on observation of sensory experience determining truth
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associationism
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when two ideas interact, they become associated
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Ebbinghaus, Hermann
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late 1800's
measurement of memory |
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Chomsky, Noam
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language cannot be learned via associationism
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Willis, Thomas
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Linkage of brain damage to impaired cognitive function
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Jackson, John Hughling
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first? to scientifically explore the localizationist view of the brain
related this to seizures |
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equilibrium potential
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no net flow of ions down chemical gradient due to electrical gradient
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dendritic spine
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part of the dendrite that makes a synapse with the terminus of one axon
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receptor potential
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generally a depolarization that occurs at the receptor site
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synaptic potential
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same as PSP
IPSP or EPSP |
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second messenger
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an NT doesn't directly elicit a behavior in the neuron
rather it begins a process that results in the desired action indirectly coupled postsynaptic receptors |
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etiology
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cause of a disease or disorder
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neurotransmitter
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1. synthesized in presynaptic neuron
2. released by presynaptic nuron when action potential reaches axon terminal 3. postsynaptic neuron must contain receptors for this molecule 4. when artificially applied at synapse, the NT should elicit the same effect |
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neurotransmitter types
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amino acids
biogenic amines neuropeptides |
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NTs removed by...
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reuptake
enzymatic breakdown diffusion away from synapse |
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neuron types
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unipolar
bipolar pseudounipolar multipolar |
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H.M
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10-15 seizures per day
surgeon removed hippocampus -> lost the ability to form new memories studied by Brenda Milner and Suzanne Corkin |
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synapse
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cleft: 20-40 nms
~1000 synapses per neuron |
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neuron length
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.2 mm < neuron < 1m
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neurotrophins
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family of nerve growth factors
without which, nerves would undergo apoptosis |
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inhibitory ion
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cl-
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metabotropic receptor
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unlike ionotropic receptors, it acts indirectly through second messengers
longer lasting |
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Neitz, Jay
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gene therapy to 'cure' color vision deficiency in squirrel monkeys
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Hadhazy, Adam
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football players who suffered concussions are three times more likely to suffer from depression
one problem is damage to the pituitary gland |
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radial glial cells
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key in brain development
precursors migrate along radial glia described by Ramon y Cajal |
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precursor cell
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partially differentiated cell which can form into a glial cell or a neuron
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hydrocephaly
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too much csf in the ventricles
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hyperekplexia
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increased startle reflex due to not enough of the inhibitory nt glycine
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Alzheimer's cause/issue
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amyloid plaques deposited throughout the brain
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part of the thalamus that relays information to the primary visual cortex
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lateral geniculate nucleus
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ventricular zone
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here, cells divide and migrate to the (outer) cortex
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corticogenesis
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precursor cells divide in ventricular zone
migrate along radial glia go to the outside (most superficial) part of the cortical plate |
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lymbic system
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amygdala, hippocampus, anterior thalamic nuclei, limbic cortex
important for emotion, behavior, long-term memory, olfaction located along the inner border of the cortex part of forebrain |
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hippocampus
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part of the limbic system
important for memory formation located at the inner edge of the cortex |
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hypothalamus
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important for the autonomic nervous system
pituitary gland important for the control of the endocrine system |
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ectoderm
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outer layer of the early embryo
neural tube is part of the ectoderm |
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association cortex
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part of the cortex that is not sensory or motor
many higher mental processes occur primarily in the association regions of the cortex distinction is not always clear. ie mental imagery can activate the same region that actual seeing activates |
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nucleus
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a structure composed mostly of grey matter
or just a group of neurons (bodies?) |
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somatopy
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correspondance of receptors to functional areas of the cortex
sensory topological organization |
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autonomic nervous system
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controls smooth muscle
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sympathetic system
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increases heart rate
diverts blood from digestive track uses norepinephrine |
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parasympathetic
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decrease heart rate
stimulate digestion uses acetylcholine |
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differentiation of neural cells
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time of birth
not beginning of migration |
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Ct scan
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computed tomography
uses two dimensional x-ray images |
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angiography
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maps vasculature
injection radio-opaque agent into the blood scanning with x-rays |
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DBS
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deep brain stimulation
used for parkinson's patients to stimulate cells where insufficient dopamine |
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double dissociation inference
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two groups perform poorly on different tasks by fine on the task the other group performs poorly on
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rCBF
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regional cerebral blood flow
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retinotopic
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topography of retinal receptors
adjacent neurons have adjacent receptive fields in retina |
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voxel
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three dimensional pixel used in imaging
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cognitive psychology
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how are ideas represented in the brain
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types of brain tumors
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glioma - originate from glia
meningioma - from meninges metastatic - originate from elsewhere [metastatize] |
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Chapter 5
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-
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Hearing process
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vibration of eardrum
waves in inner ear fluid stimulation of hair on the basilar membrane hair cells generate action potentials |
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hearing receptive fields
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different frequencies picked up by different hair cells
ie receptor fields |
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subcortical relays (hearing)
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cochlear nucleus
inferior colliculus medial geniculate nucleus thalamus (cortical: A1) |
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principals of sound processing
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1. tonographic organization
2. frequency differentiation becomes more accurate as the signal moves through the auditory system |
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functions of sound processing
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identify sound
localize sound |
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sound localization tools
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interaural time
amplitude differences? |
|
|
odor molecules
|
odorants
|
|
|
odorant entrance
|
inhaling
passive retronasal olfaction |
|
|
odorant receptor location
|
olfactory epithelium
|
|
|
number of olfactory receptor types
|
1000
|
|
|
olfactory receptor neuron type
|
bipolar neuron
|
|
|
olfactory stimulation path
|
-> olfactory bulb
-consists of glomeruli one bipolar neuron may stimulate up to 8000 glomeruli -> primary olfactory cortex -> orbitalfrontal cortex |
|
|
olfaction is ???lateral
|
ipsilateral
|
|
|
challenges in olfaction lab tests
|
non magnetic smell delivery
hard to determine if smell is no longer present (we can control the intensity of our smell experience) |
|
|
nostril alternation
|
alternation in size (air flow)
and sampling efficiency low-absorption smells better in low air flow nostril high-absorption smells better in high airflow nostril |
|
|
why are smells such a powerful memory trigger
|
possibility: direct connection with limbic cortex
hippocampus in particular? |
|
|
chemical senses
|
taste and smell
|
|
|
molecules involved in taste
|
tastants
|
|
|
taste processing path
|
nerve stimulation in taste pore
-> dorsal medulla (gustatory nucleus) ->ventral posterior medial nucleus of thalamus -> primary gustatory cortex -> orbitofrontal cortex |
|
|
number of taste buds in mouth
|
10 000
|
|
|
major tastes
|
salty, sour, bitter, sweet, umani
|
|
|
taste experience when eating protein rich foods
|
umani
|
|
|
purpose of bitter sense?
|
warning for bad substances
1000 times higher receptivity to bitter tastes |
|
|
pleasantness of food processed in
|
orbital frontal cortex
|
|
|
somatosensory receptors
|
crpuscles
|
|
|
regular corpuscles
|
Merkel's
|
|
|
light touch corpuscles
|
Meissner's
|
|
|
deep pressure corpuscles
|
Pacinian
|
|
|
temp info corpuscles
|
ruffini
|
|
|
pain receptors
|
nociceptors
|
|
|
myelinated nociceptors
|
fast transduction to brain
|
|
|
unmyelinated nociceptors
|
longer lasting pain sensation
|
|
|
s1
|
primary somatosensory cortex
brodmann 1, 2, 3 |
|
|
s2
|
more complex representations
texture and size integration of both hemispheres |
|
|
cranial nerve 1
|
olfactory
|
|
|
cranial nerve II
|
optic
|
|
|
cranial nerve III
|
oculomotor
|
|
|
cranial nerve V
|
face sensation
|
|
|
cranial nerve VII
|
face motor
|
|
|
cranial nerve VIII
|
hearing
|
|
|
cranial nerve IX
|
taste nerve
|
|
|
cranial nerve X
|
vegus! sensory and motor
voice, resonance innervation of all viscera |
|
|
cranial nerve XI
|
traps
|
|
|
cranial nerve XII
|
tounge
|
|
|
primary/secondary somatosensory
|
s1/s2
|
|
|
s1-m1 relation
|
close proximal mapping
|
|
|
skin nerve endings superficial-receptive area relation
|
close to the skin, finer receptive area
|
|
|
phantom limb
|
innervation from other receptive fields refers pain to nerve tissue formally responsible for processing missing nerve endings
can be painful - referred pain |
|
|
humunculus
|
upside down along motor strip
|
|
|
vision performance factors
|
1. optics (glasses are prosthetics)
2. receptor sampling (rods and cones) 3. neural connections |
|
|
rods and cones
|
light receptors - aka photorectpor cell - type of neuron
responsible for absorbing and transducing light |
|
|
# of photoreceptor cells in eye
|
8 million
|
|
|
retinal ganglion cell
|
interneuron to which rod/cones attach
|
|
|
rod
|
actually the farthest back part of the photoreceptor cell
made up of disks |
|
|
rod disk
|
rhodopsin
-retinal -opsin light causes the connection to change |
|
|
rhodopsin shift
dark -> light |
cis isomer -> trans isomer
|
|
|
transisomer
|
doesn't fit in the disk well
triggers intracellular cascade enormous multiplier |
|
|
rhodopsin shift leads to..
|
closing of ion channels -> hyperpolarization
degree of hyperpolarization tracks the amount of light that has been absorbed different from typical precursors to action potential |
|
|
graded potential in retina
|
no action potential appears until the third order neuron
photoreceptors -> bipolar cells -> retinal ganglion -> optic nerve |
|
|
rod vs cone location
|
cones in the center - about 8 million
-sparser and sparser towards periphery -more easily triggered -we see better when the cones are being simulated rods - 120 million - absent in the center of the retina -more concentrated towards the periphery relative to cones |
|
|
the type of opsin determines...
|
the wave of light to which the photoreceptor is sensitive
|
|
|
vision types
|
trichromatic - three types of cones determined by opsins
dichromatic - only two types of cones |
|
|
short, middle, long wave length cones
|
blue, green, red
|
|
|
migraine types
|
thalmic migraines
-can't see for 15 minutes ... |
|
|
visual system
|
otpic nerves
-> optic chiasm (contralateralization) -> pulvinar nucleus -> lateral geniculate nucleus or superior colliculus -> otpical radiation to v1 |
|
|
optic chiasm
|
crossing of the optic nerves
|
|
|
light from left visual field...
|
hits right retna
->projects to right v1 |
|
|
information about depth coming from binocular experience
|
stereopsis
|
|
|
retinal ganglion cell length
|
2 cms
|
|
|
interior part of eye
|
nasal portion
closest to the nose |
|
|
lateral geniculate nucleus
|
first stop after the optic chiasm
receives much information also from v1 |
|
|
optic streams
|
dorsal, ventral streams
|
|
|
MT (aka v5) functions
|
processing of motion information
direction localization? speed |
|
|
Akinetopsia
|
L.M. [throw loam + strobe light]
lesion around MT without the ability to detect motion a series of random visual frames |
|
|
Middle ear
|
past tympanic membrane
houses ossicles |
|
|
inner ear
|
coiled up
cochlea looks like snail 1.25 inches in length |
|
|
ear drum
|
tympanic membrane
vibrates ossicles |
|
|
ossicles
|
malleus
incus stapes |
|
|
oval window
|
vibrated by stapes
|
|
|
cochlear duct
|
open chamber in cochlea
|
|
|
describe movement of sound
|
vibration of the tympanic membrane
malleus and other ossicles vibrate stapes vibrates oval window hairs along different parts of the cochlea vibrate at different frequencies |
|
|
round window
|
exiting vibration from the ochlea
|
|
|
basilar membrane
|
where the hairs are along cochlea
30 000 hairs 23 000 inner 7 000 outer |
|
|
basilar membrane deformation patterns
|
200 hrz near the apex
20 000 hrz near the stapes |
|
|
hair cell transduction
|
sound translated to motion and mechanically gated ion channels are activated with vibration
|
|
|
hertz
|
cycles per second
|
|
|
damage to hair cells
|
aspirin
loud sounds |
|
|
cochlear implant
|
imitate transduction by hair cells with electric current
directly innervates the auditory nerve 8th cranial nerve |
|
|
prosthetic
|
sensory/motor replacement device
|
|
|
subcortical audio processing
|
lots!
|
|
|
primary auditory cortex - location
|
Brodmann 41, 42
|
|
|
A1 neuron receptive field
|
frequency range which stimulates a given region of A1
tonotopic |
|
|
tonotopic map in A1
|
500 hrz -> 16000
ant -> posterior |
|
|
secondary auditory cortex
|
below A1
broader frequency responses |
|
|
Merzenich, Michael
|
PBS series on the brain
developed cochlear implants experience dependent plasticity |
|
|
Experience dependent plasticity
|
eg. change in tonotopic map based on rewards (in rats?)
|
|
|
Pantev, Christo (1998)
|
effect of music training on the brain
and age correlation between developing perfect pitch and age |
|
|
perfect pitch
|
name a pitch without a reference
|
|
|
Merzenich and attention
|
artificial stimulation can effect tonotopic map
1998 |
|
|
why is vision important
|
remote sensing
exteroceptive perception |
|
|
light sensitive molecules
|
photopigments
|
|
|
rod/cone light sensitivity
|
cones are sensitive to high levels of light
rods are sensitive to low levels of light |
|
|
cones more concentrated at...
|
the fovea or center of the eye
where there is the most light |
|
|
photoreceptors ganglion cell ration
|
260 million photoreceptors
2 million ganglion cells |
|
|
most ganglion cells project to...
|
the lateral geniculate nucleus
10% innervate subcortical structures includingthe superior colliculus |
|
|
visual information from the lgn to...
|
primary visual cortex
|
|
|
progression through visual areas of cortex
|
not exactly 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4
after v1, there are a variety of pathways |
|
|
retinotopic maps and projections
|
much of the topography is preserved through projections
|
|
|
two hypotheses of visual cortex orangization
|
increasing complexity of representations
different areas encode different visual information (ie color movment) |
|
|
mt or v5
|
important for motion information
unimportant for color |
|
|
Zeki 1993
|
support for regional specialization theory of visual cortex organization
|
|
|
higher visual areas may be more stimulated than v1 depending on circumstances
|
...
|
|
|
object recognition purposes
|
use of tools
pavlovian condition social interactions navigation danger avoidance reading/symbol recognition |
|
|
object recognition can occur at different levels
|
fine-grained or basic-leve
|
|
|
fine-grained or basic-level object recognition
|
70-100 milliseconds
|
|
|
Mary Potter 1971
|
RSVP
7 images/second 150 miliseconds seems to be plenty for basic-level extraction |
|
|
recognition
|
dependence on memory
rejecting close bu incorrect matches size, viewpoint, context invariance |
|
|
steps of object recognition
|
1. find the object
2. put the parts together 3. excluding parts of other objects 4. filling in any missing parts |
|
|
Dorsal/Ventral streams
|
Where/What
|
|
|
Kholer et al.
|
specialization of where-dorsal and what-ventral streams of object recognition
|
|
|
Agnosia
|
inability to identify objects or persons
specific modality affected typically not complete [without knowledge] |
|
|
challenges of object recognition
|
size invariance
viewpoint invariance assemblage of features into arts assemblage of parts into object |
|
|
agnosia can have many causes:
|
(requires diagnosis by exclusion)
-not anomia -not impaired acuity -not impaired color vision -not impaired memory -not impaired detection |
|
|
diagnosis by exclusion
|
not this
not that therefore: this |
|
|
blind-sight vs anton's syndrom
|
belief that you are blind when in fact you have residual vision
vs blindness plus denial plus confabulation |
|
|
sub-species of agnosia
|
apperceptive
associative -integrative |
|
|
DF
|
carbon monoxide poisoning
damage to right occipital cortex v1 is intact damage "between v1 and object recognition" probably in the ventral stream look at an apple and copy it but can draw an apple from memory she can't identify line orientation but can perform simple actions which require knowledge of the orientation successfully pre-forms hand into power or precision grip when picking up an object |
|
|
PS
|
agensis of corpus callosum?
language in both hemispheres talks to each hemisphere separately |
|
|
prosopagnosia
|
face recognition deficiency
|
|
|
causes of prosopagnosia
|
medial occipitotemporal lesions
particularly in fusiform gyrus |
|
|
fusiform gyrus
Kanwisher, McDermott, Chun study 1997 |
specialization for recognition of different things (ie faces)
fusiform face area* |
|
|
Elizabeth Warrington
|
object recognition tests
|
|
|
Learning a memory are not monolithic
|
it took a long time for all to buy into this theory
|
|
|
memory is diverse in nature
|
different abilities in remembering different things
diverse in causes of deficiency |
|
|
learning
cognitive vs neuroscience focuses |
reliability/accuracy vs. neural substrates
|
|
|
types of representations
|
sensory representations
verbal representations motor representations (underrepresented) each uses different brain structures |
|
|
supervised vs. unsupervised learning
|
supervised: requires explicit feedback from a source
unsupervised: occurs passively - feedback is fully internalized |
|
|
memory model
|
long-term memory
-declarative memory -non-declarative memory short term memory |
|
|
declarative memory
|
contextural/associative, episodic, recollection
familiarity, semantic, non-contextual/non-associatvie |
|
|
non-declarative memory
|
procedural memory
priming classical conditioning |
|
|
short-term memory
|
phonological loop
neocortical sensory and motor buffers visuospatial sketchpad |
|
|
sensory memory time span
|
very short
milliseconds high capacity |
|
|
short-term and working memory
|
time: seconds to minutes
conscious awareness |
|
|
George Sperling (1960)
|
sought to "freeze" sensory memory via partial report technique
used a tone to indicate which row of a grid of letters subjects should remember. subject success went from 30% -> 90% such memory is very fragile and can be easily interfered with |
|
|
Blaser and Kaldy (2010)
|
novel application of the partial report technique
subjects were 6 month old children sensory memory was wildly more effective than suspected kids scored very poorly unless there was use of the partial report technique study used ocularmotor system for reporting -use of preferential looking change detection statistical analysis shows the child's sensory memory capacity adults performed only marginally better on the same test |
|
|
preferential looking
|
we tend to look at novel things
|
|
|
change detection
|
ability to detect changes in environment via senses
|
|
|
modal standard model of memory
|
sensory register -> short-term memory - > long-term storage
|
|
|
serial memory process
|
encoding, storage, retrieval
|
|
|
role of attention in vision
|
selectivity
enhance filter |
|
|
amnesic patients become incapable of remember number strings after length =
|
12
|
|
|
memory differences among neuro-normal
|
...
|
|
|
Ed Vogel and Marco Machizawa
|
difference in ERP's during partial report test
looking for a correlation between activity and erp's during encoding |
|
|
Sedato 1996
|
people with blindness from birth use V1 to process tactile stimulii
...unlike people who lost sight later in life ...with the exception of people who lost sight before the age of 5 |
|
|
agnosia/visual agnosia
|
failures of knowledge or recognition
|
|
|
fiber bundles leaving the occipital lobe
|
dorsal - superior longitudinal fasciculus (aka occipitoparietal pathway)
ventral - inferior longitudinal fasciculus (aka occiptotemporal pathway) |
|
|
Pohl 1973
|
bilateral lesions in monkeys provide evidence of where/what distinction
|
|
|
neurons in the parietal visual areas vs temporal
|
parietal less selective than temporal
receptive areas for parietal cells cover much of retina |
|
|
Kholer 1995
|
further evidence of where/what hypothesis using three screens and different task instructions for subjects
|
|
|
Kanwisher, Woods 1997
|
looked for evidence of memory involved in detected novel elements in a visual field
ended up adding evidence to support the theory of object recognition (what) occurring primarily in occiptotemporal pathway |
|
|
unlike lesion studies for object recognition in animals
|
in hum subjects, unilateral lesions can cause object recognition failure, ie prosopagnosia
|
|
|
DF
Goodale and Millner (1992) |
carbon monoxcide poisoning messed up her object recognition
however still able to able to perform where tasks such as placing a card in a slot IT |
|
|
optic ataxia
|
inability to use visual information and object recognition to coordinate activity
associated with lesions in the parietal visual areas of the dorsal stream |
|
|
components of object recognition
|
shape recognition
texture recognition ... |
|
|
object constancy
|
the brain's ability to recognize an object as the same despite variation in visual stimuli
|
|
|
challenges to object recognition (3)
|
position, lighting and background
|
|
|
view-dependent theory of object recognition
|
many perspectives on each object are stored in memory
this is unlikely due to the burden it would place on the memory however if the process is interpolitive in comparing to stored representation is seems more feasible |
|
|
view-invariant frame of reference in object recognition
|
recognition based on inferences from a few major features ie major/minor axes
posited by David Marr in 1982 |
|
|
Vuilleumier 2002
|
evidence from fmri's of both view invariant and view dependent theories by measuring repetition suppression effect
|
|
|
repetition suppression effect
|
in repeated exposure to same or similar stimuli, the internal representation becomes more efficient (ie less neural activity)
|
|
|
gnostic unit
|
a neuron that responds to a complex known object
|
|
|
grandmother cell
|
a term coined to suggest the possibility that there may be a specific cell that responds to the sight of your grandmother
the final precept for grandmother is encoded by a single cell unlikely because of the possibility for failure of that cell or new objects coming into perception |
|
|
ensemble theories of object recognition
|
different patterns are stimulated by recognition of different parts of grandma
supported by experiments |
|
|
two types of agnosia
|
apperceptive agnosia (ventral-stream disorder -- pre-recognition)
associative agnosia (can't tie visual information to objects) |
|
|
Warrington 1985
|
lateralization effect in people with unilateral lesions
right-hemispher lesions caused poorer performance in iusal tasks language problems arose in people with left-hemisphere lesions |
|
|
according to Warrington, key deficit in aperceptive agnosia resulting from a right-hemisphere lesion
|
inability to perform the cognitive task of transforming internal representations
|
|
|
memory retrieval opens the door to..
|
rewriting/editing of that memory
|
|
|
Frederick Bartlett 1932
|
memory is an active process and is constantly being rewritten edited
|
|
|
Beth Loftus
|
lability of memory
subjects can strengthen misinformation/misidentification by validating feedback during interrogation |
|
|
Vogel/Machizawa
|
higher memory load
... correlates with contralateral - ipsilateral difference in parietal lobe |
|
|
lateralized difference wave
|
ipsi - contralateral activation difference
|
|
|
HM (Henry Mollaison)
|
suffered from grand mal seizures
surgeon wanted to remove much of his medial temporal lobe but instead removed much of his hippocampus could almost not form new long-term memories some memory still worked: new procedural memories |
|
|
hippocampus name comes from
|
seahorse
|
|
|
basal ganglia
|
the brains filter of task-irrelevant information
|
|
|
Globus pallidus
|
output of basal ganglia
|
|
|
Suzanne Corkin
|
primary researcher of HM's mind
distinguished sub-species of long-term memory... showed that procedural memory involved different systems from declarative memory |
|
|
parietal lobe activity...
|
important for working memory
|
|
|
as you age, the basal ganglia's ability to filter task-irrelevant information...
|
decreases
|
|
|
Dual Process Theory - John Wixted
|
recollection - retrieval accompanied by specific contextual details
familiarity - the feeling that an event is old or new with recovery of contextual details [Which ted - recollection or familiarity] DPT asserts that these processes are different |
|
|
episodic memory
|
what where when... context
memories are bound |
|
|
aging correlates with a lost in hippocampal activity during recollection which means...
|
hippocampal memory is associated with declarative memory
if you push an older person for details... they may not be able to produce and extraordinary contextual detail |
|
|
amygdala roles in memory
|
connections with hippocampus, thalamus
connection between the thalamus and the amygdala is shorter than the connection with the sensory cortex amygdala is important for emtional/fear conditioning/processing thalamus -> amygdala or the other way around??? |
|
|
human fear conditioning and galvonic skin response
|
if the amygdala is lesioned, no learning associating a beep with a shock
|
|
|
working memory aspects, skills
|
maintenance and manipulation
|
|
|
long-term memory reconsolidation
|
follows inability to retrieve information and re-exposure to that information
|
|
|
memory consolidation
|
short-term -> long-term memory
|
|
|
memory retrieval has what effect on the stability of the retrieved memory
|
it becomes less stable
|
|
|
Warrington - phases of object recognition
|
perceptual categorization
semantic categorization |
|
|
Humphrey, Ridoch
Integrative agnosia |
inability to join the parts of an object
|
|
|
Warrington's phases fall short when dealing with ... in object recognition
|
integrative problems
|
|
|
associative agnosia cause
|
loss of semantic knowledge regarding visual structures
|
|
|
category-specific deficits in object recognition
|
in ability to recognize things from a certan category
ie manufactured objects, living objects |
|
|
Gerlach, Kellenbach 2003
and object recognition |
mind responds preferentially when it has action knowledge of how to interact with an object
|
|
|
Farah and McClelland 1991
|
category-specific deficits are likely emergent properties
different systems are involved in different types of object recognition |
|
|
Farah 1990
|
prosopagnosia most directly tied to damage in the right hemipshere
|
|
|
Baylis 1985- Monkey's and face recognition
|
in monkey's strong specialization for faces
|
|
|
N170, M170 response
|
consistent eeg meg response 170 ms after seeing a face
stronger for non face stimuli |
|
|
Keenen 2001 - and face recognition localization
|
temporarily disabling the right hemisphere really messes up facial recognition
|
|
|
face inversion effect
|
can't recognize faces well upside-down
face processing involves distinct components or face-processing requires proper orientation |
|
|
computations for a motor task
|
identify target and goal
identify obstacles internal representation |
|
|
principles of the motor system
|
the motor system is hierarchical
-behavioral -anatomical |
|
|
cerebellum lateralism in motor projects
|
ipsi
|
|
|
muscles movement
|
movement in effector
(muscles fibers expand and contract) |
|
|
lower motor (alpha) neurons
|
automatic!
located in brainstem and spinal cord control all body movement by direct stimulation of muscles control reflexes balance |
|
|
upper motor neurons
|
descend mostly by pimary motor cortex
modulated by cerebellum and basal ganglia responsible for voluntary neurons present in motor cortex and brain stem |
|
|
cerebellum
|
big and dense
output from deep cerebellar nuclei more neurons than the rest of the nervous system combined |
|
|
connectivity between different motor parts of brain
|
connected by tracts
brainstem -> spinal cord -reflexes, posture cortex -> spinal cord -voluntary motor output cortex -> cortex -high-level movement control cortex -> basal ganglia -fine-tuning, timing |
|
|
hemiplegia
|
paralysis of limbs/trunk in one side of the body
usually caused by stroke in the motor cortex? minimal recovery most evident in distal effectors results in spasticity hyperactive reflexes |
|
|
optic ataxia
|
unable to coordinate muscle movements
damage to posterior parietal cortex inability to transform visual information into motor projections disorder of target-directed movement |
|
|
Cohen Thesis
|
same brain regions responsible for target directed activity control object avoidance
|
|
|
grasp points of patients with optic ataxia
|
unable to grasp an object along an axis that passes through the center of mass
|
|
|
Binkofski - are reaching and grasping controlled by the same brain systems
|
identified grasping in healthy subjects
|
|
|
Rice's dissertation
|
TMS to AIP
AIP important during the execution of grasping |
|
|
AIP
|
upper lower - parietal sulcus
anterior interparietal sulcus |
|
|
apraxia
|
transitive movement deficits
restricted primarily to tools body part-as-object error sequencing errors spacial errors left hemisphere dominant system caused by damage to the inferior parietal lobule and left middle? due to stroke or neurodegenerative disease |
|
|
underlying causes to apraxia according to liepmann
|
disruption of action representations
in premotor areas - for exectution action representation in left parietal lobe |
|
|
heilman - showed difference between action representations vs motor tasks
|
...
|
|
|
disorders of subcortical regions
|
ie parkinson's
|
|
|
parkinson's
|
symptoms: resting tremor
rigidity, akinesia (absense of volutary movement) or hypokinesia (less voluntary movmenet), bradykinesia (slowness oin initiation of execution of movment), reduce flexibility in controllng movment loss of dopamine l-dopa cause broad movements |
|
|
huntington's
|
progressive degenerative disorder of the basal ganglia
chorea - involuntary movements hyperkinesia - excessive movements contorted postures clumsiness balance problems general restlessness cause: too many responses getting through the basal ganglia (opposite of parkinson's where movements are being stopped) |
|
|
cerebellar lesion
|
cerebellum is responsible for smooth control of movement
important of timing between coordinated muscles involved in a movement when damaged can't use supporting muscles to control movement |
|
|
HM's surgery
|
medial temporal lobe removed
and accidentally part of hippocampus? |
|
|
unilateral temporal lobectomy
|
only one temporal lobe is removed because the removal of both can prevent the consolidation of new memories
|
|
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lifespan of different types of memory
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sensory memory - milliseconds to seconds
short-term memory - seconds to minutes long-term - days to years |
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sensory memory for healing
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echoic memory
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sensory memory for vision
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iconic memory
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location of sensory memory
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sensory cortex as measured with mmn and mmf (mismatch negativity - subtractive method following an event)
evidence from Sams an Hari 1993 Finland regarding sound |
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life span of iconic memory
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300 - 500 ms - much less than echoic memory which can last up to 10 seconds
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modal model
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Atkinson/Shiffrin - 1968
sensory inputs -> sensory register -> short-term storage -> long-term storage interference and decay determine when sensory inputs are stored long term model also highlights the importance of attention and rehearsal |
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achromatopsia
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deficit in color perception
resulting from lesions in v4 |
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akinetopsia
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inability to perceive motion in in the visual field
much more sever when damage to temporoparietal cortices is bilateral |
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anomalous trichromats
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sensitive to three pigments but abnormal sensitivity in one
8% in males 1% in females |
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tests for achomatopsia
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hue discrimination, brightness discrimination
also saturation and reflectance |
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hemianopia
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unilateral disability of the cortex
half cortically blind |
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scotoma
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discrete region of blindess due to visual cortex lesion
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dissociable sight in two regions
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superior colliculus and visual cortex
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Weiskrantz and blindsight
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destroyed striate cortex will not completely diable sight
superior colliculus route or direct projections of lgn to mt or extrastriate cortex |
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multisensory integration
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primarily in the superior colliculus
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synesthesia
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mixing of the senses
eg smelling color |
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stimulant and results of synesthetic experience
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inducer/concurrent
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colored grapheme synesthetes
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symbols have color
ie red is a |
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braddley's model of working memory
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alternative to atkinson shiffrin model
originally had two slave systems - visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop the two systems are distinct also now episodic buffer |
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KF EE
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Short-term memory is not always a gateway to long-term memory
other evidence that short/long term memory consolidation may involve concurrent processes |
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MPTP
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drug that causes parkinson's like symptoms
treated with l-dopa |
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effectors
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part of the body that can movie
distal or proximal |
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alpha neurons
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long neurons that typically go through the spinal cord and stimulate effectors
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extrapyramidal tracts of neurons
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brain stem -> effectors
not beginning in m1 |
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indirect innervation of effectors by m1
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corticospinal tract
terminate on alpha motor neurons or spinal interneurons |
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area 6
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divided into premotor cortex and secondary motor area
brodmann area 6 |
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methods of activation of m1
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1. modulation by corticocortical stimulation
2. stim of brainstem 3. stim of cerebellum and bg 4. stim of cranial nerves |
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central pattern generators
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exist in pnf
can perform motor task (unmodulated) with resected connection to cns |
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deafferentation of one limb vs both
Taub |
results in non-use while both results in use of both
developed constraint-induced therapy |
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chunking
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hierarchical grouping of subtasks
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Rich and Mattingly
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Synesthesia framework
causes: not enough pruning between modalities, neurogenesis postnatal natutal connections between modalities conclusions: synesthesia does not involve primary senses ie v1 |
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goodale blindsight - obstacle without
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function v1
direct projections to MT |
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binsted/brownell
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certain directed tasks without v1
may be aware of size and orientation damage to inferior occipitotemporal regions ie lateral termoral causes agnosia |
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LH
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prosopagnosia patient
better at recognizing faces upside down |
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peculiarities of face recognition
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face inversion effect
face rec is not just a concatenation of individual parts lh.aksa [face in the soup] house perception by contrast is as effective when done by components |
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PPA
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parahippacampal face area
named discovered by kanwisher and epstein more importantly discovered the other uses of FFA in these experiments |
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Farah
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face and word recognition are dissociable but each is not dissociable for object recognition
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two types of processing
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holistic vs analytic
analysis as a hole vs by parts |
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region for holistic processing
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right
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region for analytic processing
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left
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link between perceptiual deficits and deficits in imagegy
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strong
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imagery uses...
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visual areas
even v1 koslyn and v1 tms during imagery tasks |
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integrative agnosia
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type of associative agnosia
can't percieve whole objects out of parts |
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medial temporal lobe
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important for the transference of declarative information from short term to long term memory
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spatial working memory in
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posterior perietal extrastriate cortex
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non-declarative memory
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memory to which we have no conscious cognitive access
eg motor, habituation, sensitization |
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semantic vs episodic memory
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both declarative however episodic is important for forming a personal narrative as facilitated by context
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divisions of nondeclarative memory
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procedural memory
perceptual representation system classical conditioning nonassociative learning |
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amnesia
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deficits in memory
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operation which causes anteretrograde amnesia
usually performed on epileptics |
BILATERAL medial temporal lobe lobectomy
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anteretrograde vs retrograde amnesia
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anteretrograde - forward
retrograde - preceding lesions/dysfunction |
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important structure for long-term memories
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hippocampus
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alcohol induced amnesia
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Korsakoff's syndrom
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foster an wilson
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after learning something that patter of neural activation repeats backwards
repeats forwards in sleep i think (p 332) |
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amnesia where you can't remember context
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source amnesia
damage to episodic memory |
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serial reaction time task
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amnesiacs repeat procedural tasks an improve while mantaining no knowledge of having done the task before
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systems involved in procedural learning
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basal ganglia
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vogel/machizawa article
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high capacity working memory actually due to a highly effective basal ganglia and other systems filtering out unimportant information
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neurogenesis - shorr
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primarily in hippocampus
but cells often die within a few days alcohol can retard this process excercise can help? |
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anatomoy of prosopagnosia
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lesions to right visual association cortex
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ideational apraxia
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inability to understand the intent of an action and related it to activity
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ideomotor apraxia
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unable to connect action intent with an action
can't pantomime tool use |
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pinna
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outer part of the ear
also known as the auricle |
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apostolos georgopoulos
motor system studies |
role of different motor neurons
direction muscle movment force |
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population vector
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summed vectors of stiulation levels of neurons indicating movement to which a neuron is tuned
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strick and type of activity encoded in m1
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direction and particular muscle movements
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bmi
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brain machine interface
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rizolatti and movement representations
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goal-based
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parietal cortex - where visual stream and movment
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important for coordinated movements
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mirror neuron system
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activation in premotor corted when witnessing another perform an act
similar activation when individual performs act |
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components of mirror neuron system
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premotor cortex
also parietal and occiptial |
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movements requiring visual feedback
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use parietal cortec
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moviements with just internal sources use the
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premotor cortex pmc
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lapse of attention
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day dreaming
multi-tasking |
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william james on attention - 1890
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"It implies withdrawal form some things in order to deal effectively wwith the others"
attention is a finite resource |
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first study of attention
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colin cherry 1954
cocktail party effect |
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colin cherry study
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play two voices in one ear
told subject to attend to one of the voices can't differentiate two voices, one in each ear can differentiate able to stop processing of one stream of sensory information |
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colin cherry's study
where is the signal being dampened |
?
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ability to control attention
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-> flexibility in how we view our world
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brain systems that focus attention
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must have information about goals and priorities
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attention mechanisms
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stimulus driven attention
-exogenous Goal driven -endogenous |
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exteneded taxonomy of attention
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driver vs. duration
duration - transient to sustained driver - stimulus to goal |
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ears and attention
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hearing vs listening
listening requires attention |
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dan simons, rensink
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rapid changes (rensink) and slow changes are hard to detect
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attention - brain regions
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alerting netowrk - thalamus
orienting network - parietal cortex (visual orienting mechanism) executive control/selection network - prefrontal cortex |
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sensory and perception activity
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attention increases cortical responses to sensory stimuli
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important nucleus in attention
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pulvinar nucleus
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location selection i nattention
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ventral stream
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testing the orienting network - posner
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arrow orients where to look
80% of the time the arrow is correct subject hits a button when the cue is recognized significantly faster reaction time if the cue is correct... slower reaction time if the cue is wrong |
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stroop effect and attention
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can't ignore the words and just see the color
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Milton Bradley's Simon game - 1978
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red - right
green - left color-side association as opposed to the donders task which is just left-right related |
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Frans Cornelis Donders 1868
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early optimologist
use cylindrical lens perscribe lenses scientifically techniques to fix astigmatism invental mental chronometry - used speed of responses to identify underlying processes s-r compatibility/incompatibility |
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conclusions from simon, donders effect, stroop
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we are influence by task-irrelevant information
we can do self-correction before a task is performed incorrectly |
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Stroop vs Simon - neural substrates of attentional control
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simon incongruencies focus on left-right task irrelevant information
simon and stroop results were very similar for congruent tasks stroop effect requires more time for the brain there was significant overlap simon effect - activation in the anterior cingulate girus -dorsolateral prefrontal cortex -ACC - anterior cingulate cortex --error detection during the task -SMA - supplementary motor area --area that involves planning stroop effect - parietal activation -inferior parietal cortex -relays information from various visual streams --adjudicates between conflicting sensory inputs |
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simon interference
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stimulus-response conflict
overcome by down modulation of brain regions with visuo-spatial-motor associations |
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stroop interference
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resolves stimulus-stimulus conflicts
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attention modulates sensory cortical responses
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!
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failures of attention
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distraction, sleep deprivation
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the effect of sleep deprivation on multiple-object tracking
Pensyn? (RU) |
evidence that sleep deprivation impairs ability to pay attention!
most strongly affected when attentional tasks are difficult response speed is more sluggish when you are sleep deprived sleep deprived people aren't aware that they are wrong!!!!!!!!!!!! failure to recognize that there is a mistake |
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Posner's trinity of attention
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1. enter a preserve an alert state
-mainly thalamic regions and locus coeruleus -neurepinephrine 2. orient towards sensory information -mainly parietal regions plus FEF -cholinergic system 3. executive functions to resolve conflict among brain areas -mainly anterior cingulate and lateral prefrontal ctx -dopaminergic system |
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locus coeruleus
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important for maintaining alertness
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posner 's search for the genetics of the attentional network
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genes can correlate with a function but it is not causitive
search for differences in NT level, rate of transport, clearance or regulation of NTs and enzymes looking for interesting SNPs - neuromodulators |
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posner and training attention
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alerting, spatial, conflict resolution skills/tests
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attentional network test (ANT)
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present a line of arrows and indicate whether it points to the right or left
-used with and without alerts which indicates the subjects alerting mechanisms Orienting component -spatial cues vs center cue Executive attention -congruent vs incongruent flanking |
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flanking effect - discovered during ANT
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flanking arrows moving in opposite directions should slow response time
slowed resposne by 90 msecs |
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brain's Default Netowrk
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lateral parietal cortex
medial prefrontal cortex posterior cingulate Gordon Shulman (WashU) - looking through old fMRI results looked at bold signal between trials highly predictable patterns of response between trials predictable deactivation of what has become known as the default network |
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accidental discovers in science
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LSD - Albert Hoffman and LSD
Penicillin - Alexander Fleming Botox - Jean Carruthers (blepharospasm - stopped by paralytic agent which turned out to be botox) |
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strength of default network before activity
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is a strong predictor of the quality of the subsequent response
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importance of default network
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problems arise when
the brain disengages from a task at the wrong time schezophrenia - default network is not shut down when the stimulus comes in. mind is relatively unresponsive and unfocused during a subsequent activity |
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attention and consciousness
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automatic behaviors
-without attention -without conscious awareness they do not interfere with ongoing activites -chew gum and walk at the same time controlled behaviors -effortful -attentive -conscious |
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pop-out vs conjunctive search
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easy to search for one unique characteristic
-pop-out search is order 1 difficult to search when one must search by multiple characteristics -conjunctive search is order n, growing with set size |
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conjunctive visual search is important in...
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radiology scanning
airport baggage scanners |
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UFOV - useful field of view
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huge disconnect between traditional perimetry measures and the UFOV
Ball and Sekuler test -in a field of squares, one square is replaced by smiley face |
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perimetry
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measure of your ability to see things at the perimeter of your visual field
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Green and Bavelier on UFOV
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video games and UFOV
a couple hours of video game practice produces huge performance gains on UFOV tasks tetris did nothing, while rpg fighting games had a significant effect performance boost lasts a long time |
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failures of attention
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sleep deprivation... (more that i didn't have time to write)
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unilateral spatial neglect
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failure to respond to or attend to contralesional stimuli
results from right parietal lesions of regions critical for attentional control and from frontal lesion of region critical for attentional reorienting |
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Anton Raedersheidt - 1892 - 1970
|
4 self-portraits following stroke
1 - half his world disappeard ... partial recovery |
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extinction test in patient with right-hemisphere lesion
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stronger stimulus blots out the stimulus in the other hemisphere
blotting out effect or extinction |
