Climate Change Cards

Front 1

atmosphere

Back 1

a mixture of gas molecules microscopically small suspended particlies of solid and fluid precipitation

Front 2

meterology

Back 2

the study of the atmosphere and the processes that cuase weather

Front 3

climatology

Back 3

concerns itself with the same elements of the atmopshere that meterology but on a different scale

Front 4

steady state

Back 4

when the concentration of a gas exists at a constant because the input rates equal output rates

Front 5

residence time

Back 5

the average length of teim that individual molecules of a given substance remain in the atmosphere

Front 6

permanent gases

Back 6

those that form a constant proportion of the atmospheric mass

Front 7

variable gases

Back 7

those whose distribution in the atmosphere varies in both time and space

Front 8

homosphere

Back 8

the region within 80 km of the earths surface - considered the entire atmosphere

Front 9

heterosphere

Back 9

above the homosphere, where lighter gases become increasingly dominant

Front 10

composition of atmosphere

Back 10

nitrogen - 75 percent of the atmosphere
oxygen - 21 percent of atmosphere
the other one percent are internt gases

Front 11

the most abundant of the variable gases

Back 11

water vapor

Front 12

hydrologic cycle

Back 12

the system that constantly cycles water through the atmosphere

Front 13

the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere....

Back 13

is greatest in the early spring and and lowest in late summer because of plants

Front 14

ozone is found in the

Back 14

stratosphere

Front 15

when it absorbs uv radiation ozone

Back 15

splits into its constituent parts, o + o2 which can then recombine to form another ozone molecule

Front 16

condensation nuclei

Back 16

suspended aerosols that play a major role in the formation of cloud droplets

Front 17

density

Back 17

the density of a substance is the amount of mass of substance (km) contained in a unit volume (m^3

Front 18

air density at sea level

Back 18

about 1.2 kg per m^3

Front 19

mean free path

Back 19

the distance a molecule travels before colliding with another

Front 20

scientists divided the atmopshere into 4 distinct parts based on

Back 20

how temperature varies with altitude rather than by composition

Front 21

the standard atmosphere

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the four layers - the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere

Front 22

troposphere

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lowest of the levels, where the vast majority of weather occurs, temperature decreases with height, contains 80 percent of the atmospheres mass

Front 23

average global temperature near the ground

Back 23

15 degrees celcius

Front 24

tropopause

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marks the level at which temperature ceases to decrease with altitude

Front 25

the most important source of energy for the atmosphere

Back 25

the energy emanating upward from earth rather than the downward moving solar radiation

Front 26

inversions

Back 26

locations in the atmosphere where temperature increases with height - inversions inhibit upward motion and thereby allow high concentrations of pollutants to be confined to the lowest parts of the atmosphere

Front 27

stratosphere

Back 27

the second layer of the atmosphere, little weather, inversion layer called stratopause

Front 28

in the upper stratosphere

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heating is almost exclusively the result of ultra violet radiation being absorbed by ozone

Front 29

within the stratosphere is

Back 29

the ozone layer, a zone of increased ozone concentration at altitudes between 20 and 30 km

Front 30

mesosphere

Back 30

of the .1 percent of the atmosphere not contained in the troposphere or stratosphere, 99.9 percent existin the mesosphere, temperature decreases with altitude

Front 31

thermosphere

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top layer of atmosphere, temperature increases with altitude to values in excess of 1500 C but with extremely low heat content due to lack of molecules

Front 32

ionosphere

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defined by its electrical properties, extends from the upper mesosphere to into the thermosphere contains large numbers of electrically charged particles called ions

Front 33

ions

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form when electrically neutral atoms or molecules lose one or gain additional electrons

Front 34

aurora borealis

Back 34

northern lights

Front 35

aurora australis

Back 35

southern lights

Front 36

earth was formed

Back 36

4.6 billion years ago

Front 37

outgassing

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process where gases are released from interior of the earth into the atmosphere

Front 38

winds are generated by

Back 38

horizontal variations in air pressure

Front 39

isobars

Back 39

the lines on a map which map air pressure

Front 40

relative humidity

Back 40

the amount of water vapor in the air

Front 41

dew point temperature

Back 41

another means of expressing the humidity of the air

Front 42

energy

Back 42

the ability to do work

Front 43

joule

Back 43

the standard unit of energy = .239 calories

Front 44

power

Back 44

the rate at which energy is release, transferred, or recieved. the unit of power is the watt which is equal to one joule per second

Front 45

what percent of the energy from the sun is transferred to the earth

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one two billionth

Front 46

all forms of energy fall into the two categories of

Back 46

kinetic and potential energy

Front 47

potential energy

Back 47

energy that hasnt yet been used

Front 48

energy can be transferred from one place to another by three processes

Back 48

conduction, convection, and radiation

Front 49

conduction

Back 49

the movment of heat through a substance without appreciable movement of molecules

Front 50

convection

Back 50

the transfer of heat by the mixing of a fluid

Front 51

radiation

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the only form of energy transfer that can be propogated without a transfer medium. it can occur through empty space

Front 52

all matter emits

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radiation

Front 53

radiation consists of both

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and electric and magnetic wave

Front 54

the quantity of energy in a wave is associated with

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amplitude - all things being equal, the amount of energy carried is directly proportional to wave amplitude

Front 55

all electromagnetic radiaton, regardless of wavelength travel through space at

Back 55

the speed of light - 300000 km per second

Front 56

blackbody radiators

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purely hypothetical bodies which do not exist in nature that emit the maimum possible radiation at every wavelength

Front 57

a doubling of temperature produces

Back 57

a more than doubling of the amount of radiation emitted - more specifically the intensity of radiation by a blackbody increases according to the fourth power of its absolute temperature

Front 58

Stefan boltzmann law

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I = e@T^4 where I is intensity, T is temperature, and @ is the stefan boltzmann constant ( 5.67 x 10^-8 watts per square meter) and e is emissivity of the gray body

Front 59

most bodies are treated as

Back 59

gray bodies - meaning that the emit some percentage of the mas amount of radiation possible

Front 60

the percentage of energy radiated by a substance relative to that of a blackbody is referred to as its

Back 60

emissivity

Front 61

wiens law

Back 61

from a radiating body, the wavelenth of peak emission is given by the equation : &max = constant/T where &(lambda)max refers to the energy radiated with the greatest intensity, t is equal to temperature and the constant=2900

Front 62

hotter bodies radiate more energy at

Back 62

all wave lengths

Front 63

as the distance from the sun increases, the intensity of the radiation diminishes in proportion to the

Back 63

distance squared - referred to as the inverse square law

Front 64

solar constant

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1366-1350 watts/m^2

Front 65

ecliptic plane

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the imaginary surface of a plane that the earth sits on as it orbits around the sun every 365 days

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perhelion

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when earth is closest to the sun - jan 4th

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aphelion

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when earth is farthest from the sun - july 4

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june solstice

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summer solstice - occurs on june 21

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december solstice

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winter solstice - occurs on december 21

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march equinox

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between two soltices - march 21

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september equinox

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between two solstices - september 21

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the sun never appears directly overhead poleward of

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23.5 degress north or the tropic of cancer

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solar declination

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the latitudinal position of the subsolar point which can be visualized as the latitude at which the noontime sun appears directly over head

Front 74

the axis of the earth is tilted

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23.5 degrees

Front 75

beam spreading

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the increase in the surface area over which radiation is distributed in responce to a decrease of solar angle - the greater the spreading, the less intense the radiation

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atmospheric gases, particulates, and droplets all reduce insolation by

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absorbtion

Front 77

albedo

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the percentage of visible light reflected by an object or substance

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specular reflection

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when light strikes a mirror it is reflected back as a beam of equal intensity

Front 79

the vast majority of energy reaching earths surface is

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diffuse radiation rather than direct radiation

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rayleigh scattering

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scattering performed by individual gas molecules in the atmosphere - disperses radiation both backwards and forwards - more effective at scattering short wave radiation - causes skys to be blue

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Mie scattering

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the scattering of sunlight by microscopic aerosol particles - predominatly forward - doesnt really scatter shortwave

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nonselective scattering

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scattering by clouds - absence of preference for any particular wavelenth

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the amount of solar radiation reaching the earths surface depends on two factors

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1) the amount of insolation available at the top of the atmosphere
2) and the reduction in that amount due to absorption and backscattering by the atmosphere

Front 84

7 percent more energy is available from the sun at

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perhilion than aphelion

Front 85

the earth has a planetary albedo of

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30 percent

Front 86

the atmosphere absorbs thermal radiation better than shortwave better because

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of the presence of water vapor and carbon dioxide

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the atmospheric window

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8-12 microns - it represents a certain range of wavelenths of special importance to the radiation balance because they are able to pass through the atmosphere relatively unimpeded

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net longwave radiation

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the difference between absobed and emitted longwave radiation

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the longwave energy lost from the atmosphere exceeds the amount it absorbs from the surface

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exceeds

Front 90

net radiation

Back 90

defined as the difference between absorbed and emitted radation

Front 91

the atmosphere has a net deficit of radiative energy exactly equal to the

Back 91

surplus attained by the surface

Front 92

warming of the ground during the day sets up a temperature gradient within a very thing, adjacent sliver of air called the

Back 92

laminar boundary layer

Front 93

energy circulates through out the portions of the atmosphere by means of

Back 93

convection

Front 94

free convection

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the mixing process related to buoyancy, the tendency for a lighter fluid to float upward when surrounded by a dense fluid

Front 95

forced convection (mechanical turbulence)

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occurs when a fluid breaks into disorganized swirling motions as it undergoes large scale flow

Front 96

sensible heat

Back 96

the increase in temp that we can physically sense

Front 97

specific heat

Back 97

the amount of energy needed to produce a given temperature change per unit of mass of a substance

Front 98

substances with high specific heat warm

Back 98

slowly

Front 99

latent heat

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the energy required to change the phase of a substance

Front 100

advection

Back 100

the transfer of surplus heat energy from the lower latitudes poleward

Front 101

without the atmosphere the eaths temp would be

Back 101

-18 degrees

Front 102

isotherm

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lines on a map that connect points of equal temperature

Front 103

landmasses have greater

Back 103

annual ranges in temperature than do ocean bodies

Front 104

the availability of incoming radiation/temperature is more variable

Back 104

as distance from the equator increases

Front 105

subtropical regions tend to be areas of

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minimal cloud cover and insolation passing through the atmosphere exsperiences less attenuation

Front 106

continentality

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the effect of an inland location that favors greater temperature extremes

Front 107

maximum thermometer

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contains mercury

Front 108

minimum thermometer

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contains dyed alchol

Front 109

bimetallic strip

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consists of two thin strips of different metals bonded together

Front 110

resistance thermometers

Back 110

instruments that send and electrical current through a very thin filament made of conductor or semi conductor

Front 111

thermistor

Back 111

a particular type of resistance thermometer that uses ceramic semiconductor

Front 112

radiosondes

Back 112

packages of weather instruments carried by ballons

Front 113

the highest temp ever recorded was in

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libya - 136 degrees

Front 114

coldest temp ever recorded was in

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antarctica - 129 degrees

Front 115

wind chill temp index

Back 115

how the temp actually feels

Front 116

heating degree days

Back 116

index based on the notion that buildigns generally need artificial heating to bring their temps up to desired levels

Front 117

cooling degree days

Back 117

are the warm season days when buildings need to be cooled to a desired level

Front 118

thermodynamic diagrams

Back 118

depict the vertical profiles of temp and humidity with height above the surface, provide extremely important information to the forcaster

Front 119

stuve diagram

Back 119

starts with a rectangular grid with temp plotted on the horizontal axis and pressure on the verticle axis

Front 120

pressure

Back 120

the amount of force exerted per unit of surface area

Front 121

pascal

Back 121

the standard unit of pressure

Front 122

Daltons law

Back 122

if the air in a container is a mixture of gases each gas exerts its own specific amount of pressure, referred to as its partial pressure. The total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of the partial pressures

Front 123

despire the fact that the atmosphere is pulled downward by the force of gravity

Back 123

air pressure is exerted equally in all directions - up, down, and sideways

Front 124

the force of air at sea level is about

Back 124

14.7 pounds per square inch

Front 125

Ideal gas law

Back 125

p=qRT - in which p is pressure expressed in pascal, q is the density in kilograms per cubic meter, R is a constant equal to 287 joules per kilogram per kelvin, and T is temperature

Front 126

mecury barometer

Back 126

standard instrument for measuring pressure

Front 127

barometric pressure

Back 127

expressed as the height of the column of mercury in a barometer which at sea level averages 76 cm

Front 128

aneroid barometer

Back 128

without liquid alternative to the mercury barmometer

Front 129

barographs

Back 129

aneroid devices that plot continous values of pressure

Front 130

pressure gradient

Back 130

the rate of change in pressure

Front 131

pressure gradient force

Back 131

the force that is created by the pressure gradient - sets air in motion - everything else being equal the greater the pressure gradient force the greater the wind speed

Front 132

hydrostatic equilibrium

Back 132

when the gravitational force equals exactly the verticle pressure gradient force in magnitude - no verticle acceleration occurs

Front 133

the downward gravitational force on a volume of air is proportional to its

Back 133

mass

Front 134

coriolis force

Back 134

the deflection (turning) of wind caused by the turning of the earth - causes the apparent deflection in the flight of cannonballs, migrating birds, and jet aircraft

Deflection is to the right in northern hemispheres and left in southern hemispheres and zero at the equator - increases with the objects speed

Front 135

planetary boundary layer

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the lowest 1.5 km of the atmosphere

Front 136

free atmosphere

Back 136

atmosphere above 1.5 km

Front 137

geostrophic flow

Back 137

when air flow becomes unaccelerated with unchanging speed and direction - occurs only in the upper atmosphere when the pressure gradient force equals the coriolis force

Front 138

gradient flow

Back 138

when there is a continual mismatch between pressure gradient and coriolis forces

Front 139

supergeostophic flow

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when coriolis force exceeds the pressure gradient force

Front 140

anticyclones

Back 140

enclosed areas of high pressure marked by roughly circular isobar or height contours

Front 141

cyclones

Back 141

closed low pressure systems

Front 142

general circulation

Back 142

the larges scale patterns of weather - the background against which unusual events occur such as drought

Front 143

single cell model

Back 143

a simple model of atmospheric circulation proposed by george hadley which claimed that the strong heating of the equator caused a circulation pattern in which air expanded vertically into the upper atmosphere, diverged toward both poles, sank back to the surface, and returned to the equator

Front 144

zonal winds

Back 144

winds blowing from east to west or west to east

Front 145

meridional winds

Back 145

winds blowing north to south or south to north

Front 146

george hadleys main contribution

Back 146

to show that differences in heating give rise to persistent large-scale motions (called thermally direct circulations) and that zonal winds can result from deflection of meridional winds

Front 147

three cell model

Back 147

divides the circulation of each hemisphere into three distinct cells: the heat driven hadley cell that circulates air between the tropics and subtropics, a ferrel cell in the middle latitudes and a polar cell. Each cell consists of one belt of rising air with low surface air pressure, a zone of sinking air with high surface pressure, a surface wind zone with air flowing generally from the high pressure belt to the low pressure belt, and an airflow in the upper atmosphere from the belt of rising air to the belt of sinking air

Front 148

intertropical convergence zone

Back 148

also known as the equatorial low - a zone of low pressure at the equator - the rainiest latitude in the world

Front 149

subtropical highs

Back 149

large bands of high surface pressure between 20-30 degrees latitude

Front 150

desert conditions are common in the

Back 150

subtropics

Front 151

Ekman spiral

Back 151

surface currents flow at an angle of 45 degrees to the right of the winds that drive them and continue to shift clockwise as their speed decreases

Front 152

upwelling

Back 152

when strong offshore winds(blowing from land to the ocean) along a coastal region sometimes drag the warmer surface waters seaward, which draws up cooler waters from below to take their place.

Front 153

synoptic scale

Back 153

weather features that cover hundreds or thousands of square kilometers

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mesoscale

Back 154

weather features that cover tens of square kilometers

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microscale

Back 155

smalles exchange of mass and energy - these weather features are those that may cause a ripple to form on snow or a sandy beach

Front 156

monsoon

Back 156

refers to the climate pattern in which heavy precipitation alternates with hot dry conditions on an annual basis

Front 157

monsoon depressions

Back 157

monsoon lows - heavy rainfall

Front 158

Foehn

Back 158

generic synoptic scale winds that flow down mountain slopes, warm by compression, and introduce hot dry and clear conditions in the adjacent lowlands

Front 159

chaparral

Back 159

the natural vegetation of southern california whcih is dry and highly flammable

Front 160

katabatic winds

Back 160

warm by compression as they flow down slopes however they do not result from the migration of surface and upper level weather systems. rather they originate when air is locally chilled over a high elevation plateau

Front 161

diurnal

Back 161

daily

Front 162

el nino

Back 162

when unusually warm waters in the eastern pacific spawn storms on the western seaboard

Front 163

what causes el nino

Back 163

develops when the trade winds weaken or even reverse and flow eastward. the warm water normally found in the western pacific gradually slosh eastward as a slowly moving wave.

Front 164

walker circulation

Back 164

a complex interaction with the atmosphere that causes el nino

Front 165

ESNO

Back 165

el nino and southern occilation combined into a singular acronymn because of the connection

Front 166

la nina

Back 166

the reverse of el nino

Front 167

southern ocillation index

Back 167

the monthly sea level pressure departure from normal at tahiti minus the depature from at darwin, australia

Front 168

PDO

Back 168

the enso is not the only occilation pattern across the pacific ocean. a much larger and longer lived reversal pattern exists --> PDO = pacific decadal oscilation

Front 169

air masses

Back 169

large volumes of air

Front 170

fronts

Back 170

the area seperating air masses by fairly narrow boundaries. the passage of a front is a significant weather event, because fronts often bring abrupt changes in temperature , humidity, and wind

Front 171

source regions

Back 171

areas of the globe where air masses form

Front 172

continental polar air masses

Back 172

form over large high latitude land masses, such as northern canada and siberia

Front 173

continental arctic air

Back 173

colder than continental polar air

Front 174

maritime polar air masses

Back 174

similar to continental polar air masses but are more moderate in both temperature and dryness

Front 175

continental tropical air

Back 175

forms during the summer over hot, low latitude areas, such as the southwestern us and northern mexico

Front 176

maritime tropical air masses develop over

Back 176

warm tropical waters

Front 177

cold front

Back 177

occurs when a wedge of cold air advances toward the warm air ahead of it. A warm front on the other hand represents the boundary of a warm air mass moving toward a cold one.

Front 178

stationary front

Back 178

usually similar to a cold front in structure but has not recently undergone substantial movement

Front 179

occluded fronts occurs

Back 179

when a wedge of cold air advances toward the warm air ahead of it.

Front 180

overrunning

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(in a warm front) as with cold fronts, the differing densitites of the two air masses discourage mixing, so the warm air flows upward along the boundary.

Front 181

drylines

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are areas where the mT and th cT air masses reside next to each other.

Front 182

in the northern hemisphere objects are deflected

Back 182

right

Front 183

in the souther hemisphere objects are deflected

Back 183

left

Front 184

air pressure decreases with

Back 184

altitude

Front 185

one AU in KM is equal to

Back 185

149,597,870

Front 186

in our atmosphere CO2 represents ..... parts per million

Back 186

300

Front 187

with the prescence of the atmosphere the avg temp of the earth can be calculated as

Back 187

15 degrees celcius

Front 188

without the prescence of the atmosphere the avg temp of the earth can be calculated as

Back 188

-18 degrees celcius

Front 189

a cyclone spins

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counter clockwise and is associated with a low pressure center near the earths surface

Front 190

an anticyclone spins

Back 190

clockwise and is associated with a high pressure center near the earths surface

Front 191

the number of fish in peru declines with the advent of

Back 191

El nino

Front 192

trade winds move south with the advent of

Back 192

el nino

Front 193

trade winds move north with the advent of

Back 193

la nina

Front 194

clouds reflect the incoming solar energy during the day and ...

Back 194

trap the same energy during nightime

Front 195

the ITCZ

Back 195

shifts with the season
highest incoming solar radiation
rising air
rainfall band

Front 196

force of friction acts in the

Back 196

opposite direction of the direction an air mass is moving

Front 197

at a higher level in the atmopshere the

Back 197

friction is minimal and the winds are only affected by the PGF and the CF

Front 198

at equilibrium the maginitude of the PGF and CF are equal, but the directions are opposite. thus the winds flow

Back 198

parallel to isobars

Front 199

PGF

Back 199

from higher to lower pressure

proportional to pressure difference between two locations and inversely proportional to the distance separating these points

Front 200

coriolis

Back 200

depends on wind speed and latitude. increases with wind speed and latitude

Front 201

friction

Back 201

depends on the surface characteristics that obstruct airflow

Front 202

absorption band for CO2

Back 202

600-800

Front 203

absorption band for CH4

Back 203

12000-1400

Front 204

atmospheric window

Back 204

corresponds to the IR band to which the atmosphere is transparent

Front 205

atmospheric saturation

Back 205

as you increase the concentration of a greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, the intensity of the outgoing radiation will first get lower. At some threshold concentration a further increase in the amount of this greenhouse gas in the atmosphere will not result in a decrease in the outogoing solar radiation. This is called band saturation

Front 206

incoming solar energy

Back 206

1350 watts/m^2

Front 207

The three major types of fossil fuel are

Back 207

coal, oil, and natural gas

Front 208

Over the last 50 years, global per capita emissions have

Back 208

risen from about 0.6 metric tons of carbon to 1.15

Front 209

Photosynthesis is enhanced by CO2 fertilization producing

Back 209

greater plant biomass

Front 210

ionosphere is located in the

Back 210

upper mesosphere and thermosphere, and contains electrically charged particles called ions. The ionosphere is important to AM radio broadcasts

Front 211

The homosphere is composed of permanent gases and variable gases.

Back 211

Permanent gases form a constant proportion of the atmospheric mass. The atmospheric mass of the variable gases changes in time and space.

Front 212

variable gases include

Back 212

carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, ozone, and aerosols

Front 213

Temperature

Back 213

Measure of the average kinetic energy of an air molecule

Front 214

In the atmosphere, air is the weight of the

Back 214

air above a horizontal plane, divided by the area of the plane

Front 215

Pressure:

Back 215

Force per unit area exerted on any surface by bombarding molecules

Front 216

boyles law

Back 216

At a constant temperature, the volume (V) enclosed by a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure (P) exerted on the gas.

Front 217

Adiabatic process.

Back 217

Process in which heat is neither added nor extracted.

Front 218

sensible heat:

Back 218

energy in the atmosphere which we sense as temperature.

Front 219

latent heat:

Back 219

energy present in water vapor. Released to the atmosphere upon condensation.

Front 220

Absorption.

Back 220

Gases and particles in the atmosphere absorb shortwave radiation from the Sun and longwave radiation emitted by by the Earth.

Front 221

Scattering.

Back 221

Small particles act as obstacles to the paths of radiant radiation. The atmosphere preferentially scatters visible light at the shortest wavelengths, which happens to be blue.

Front 222

Reflection

Back 222

Solar radiation is reflected back to space. The reflective nature of a surface is described by its albedo. A surface that is highly reflective (e.g., snow) has a high albedo (e.g., 0.85 or 85%

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Transmission.

Back 223

Describes the radiation that is not absorbed, scattered, or reflected, but makes it to the Earth's surface unobstructed.

Front 224

Solar attenuation

Back 224

Solar radiation is attenuated as it moves through the atmosphere, causing less radiation receipt at the Earth's surface.

What is responsible for solar attenuation?

gaseous absorption
molecular scattering
clouds

Front 225

Factors affecting surface temperature

Back 225

Latitude
Altitude
Ocean Currents
Differential heating of land and water
Cloud cover
Local effects

Front 226

Newton's 1st Law:

Back 226

A body at rest remains at rest and a body in motion continues to move at constant velocity unless acted upon by an external force.

Front 227

Newton's 2nd Law:

Back 227

A force acting on a body causes an acceleration which is in the direction of the force and has a magnitude directly proportional to the mass of the body:

Front 228

Newton's law of universal gravitation:

Back 228

Every particle attracts every other particle with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them

Front 229

pgf

Back 229

PGF is directed perpendicular to isobars and from high pressure to low pressure

PGF is proportional to the pressure gradient, so denser isobars indicate greater PGF

Front 230

Hydrostatic equilibrium:

Back 230

expresses the balance between the Gravitational Force and the vertical Pressure Gradient Force.

Front 231

The primary reason that the Earth does not have a single-cell circulation is due to the Earth's angular momentum.

Back 231

On the Earth, angular momentum is conserved

Front 232

Hadley cell:

Back 232

a thermal cell characterized by upward expansion near the equator and divergence toward the poles aloft. The upward expansion creates a low pressure region referred to as the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The return flow is characterized by subsidence at ~30 degrees latitude and convergence toward the equator at the surface.

Front 233

Ferrel cell:

Back 233

a thermally indirect cell which circulates air between the subtropical high and the subpolar low.

Front 234

Polar cell:

Back 234

a thermal cell which results in the polar easterlies.

Front 235

Jet streams

Back 235

Jet streams are caused by strong pressure gradients formed at fronts.

Front 236

Troughs, ridges, and Rossby waves

Back 236

Thereare often zonal pressure differences, particularly in the mid-latitudes. Remember that we can also think of these pressure differences as height differences at a particular pressure level. If we think in these terms, it is reasonable to describe height differences as troughs (or valleys) and ridges.

Front 237

Trough:

Back 237

pressure is lower in a trough than to the west and east

Front 238

Ridge:

Back 238

pressure is higher in a ridge than to the west and east

Front 239

Rossby waves

Back 239

The troughs and ridges discussed above are not stationary (well, not usually) but move across the globe in a zonal direction. If you consider an entire hemisphere, the ridges and troughs give rise to a wavelike flow, which is referred to as a Rossby wave. Usually, there are from 3 to 7 Rossby waves encircling the globe.

Front 240

Normal conditions in the tropical Pacific Ocean

Back 240

Atmospheric conditions:

Walker circulation over western tropical Pacific

strong Trade Winds

convective precipitation and cumulus clouds in western tropical Pacific

Front 241

ENSO

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is a complex ocean-atmosphere interaction that takes place on a 2-5 year interval in the tropical Pacific Ocean. ENSO causes climate changes around the world, which often have a large impact on the local people.

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El Nino and La Nina describe the ocean response to the ENSO phenomenon.

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The Southern Oscillation describes that atmospheric response during El Nino conditions. In general, scientists consider the atmospheric and oceanic responses to be coupled, so we usually refer the these changes as ENSO.

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normal Ocean conditions:

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trade winds transport water from eastern to western side of tropical Pacific Ocean

divergence along S. America coast causes upwelling (source of nutrient-rich waters)

western tropical Pacific is several degrees warmer than eastern tropical Pacific

the thermocline slants from the eastern tropical Pacific to the western tropical Pacific

sea-surface height is about 1/2m greater in western tropical Pacific than in eastern tropical Pacific

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El Nino atmosphere conditions:

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Walker circulation is displaced

Trade winds weaken

convective precipitation and cumulus clouds move to central Pacific Ocean

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El Nino ocean conditions:

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trade winds decrease causing western Pacific waters to slosh eastward

warmer than normal surface waters in the eastern Pacific Ocean

cessation or weakening of upwelling along S. America coast

thermocline gradient is reduced

sea-surface height gradient is reduced

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SOI:

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The Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) can also be monitored and recorded, indicating when El Nino events are taking place. During an El Nino event the surface air pressure is typically higher in the western tropical Pacific, than in the eastern tropical Pacific. The (SOI) measures the monthly/seasonal fluctuations in surface air pressure differences at Tahiti and Darwin (Equation = Tahiti – Darwin), and thus the SOI usually has a negative value during an El Nino event

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The Asian monsoon is the most well developed monsoon. It is characterized by:

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During winter

Due to seasonal cooling, surface high pressure develops over central Asia

Winds from the continent flow southwestward toward the Indian Ocean

These dry winds descend over the southern Himalayas and warm adiabatically.

The winter winds bring dry conditions over some parts of India and southeast Asia.

During summer

Due to seasonal heating, low pressure develops over continental Asia

Winds flow northwestward from the Indian Ocean towards the Himalayas

Air rises orographically and by convection

The air cools adiabatically, producing heavy precipitation

Figure 2. July sea-level pressure and wind vectors over Asia (made

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Santa Ana Winds

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Santa Ana winds significantly impact the climate of L.A. Santa Ana winds are associated with clear days in L.A., but also with very dry conditions which give rise to fires.

Santa Ana wind development:

high pressure develops over Rocky Mountains

air flows away from high pressure toward Southern California

air adiabatically warms as it descends Rockies

result is dry, warm air over Southern California

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cyclone characteristics:

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in the N.H., cyclones (counterclockwise flow) are associated with low pressure systems

low-level convergence

upper-level divergence

rising motion

clouds and precipitation

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anticyclone characteristics:

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in the N.H., anticyclones (clockwise flow) are associated with high pressure systems

low-level divergence

upper-level convergence

subsiding motion

clear skies and fair weather

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The middle latitudes are not generally places where air masses form because this is where

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cold polar and warmer subtropical/tropical air tend to collide.

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Occluded fronts

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separate two polar air masses, with a colder air mass usually advancing on a slightly warmer air mass.
Occlusion refers to closure. An occluded front describes the situation where a cold front cuts off a warm front from the surface.