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Then God said, "Let us make humankind in our image, according to our likeness; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the wild animals of the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps upon the earth." So God created humankind in his image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them.
Genesis 1:26-27
• In reference to the Trinity, Christians tend to read this with “Christian” eyes. Christians see in “us” a reference to the three persons of the Trinity. This verse has often also called into question whether there is a hierarchy among creatures. Are humans masters of creation vs. stewards of creation? Is there also a hierarchy among nations, races, genders (this is especially brought out in the way different Bible translations translate the pronouns and gendered language in the passage)? Others also see in this a “fairy tale” and wonder if there is in act a God at all.
God said to Moses, "I AM WHO I AM." He said further, "Thus you shall say to the Israelites, “I AM has sent me to you.”
Exodus 3:14
• “I am who I am” has different interpretations. It could mean “None of your business,” “I exist. I am present.” or even “I exist because I am here with you.” It is often represented with the tetragrammaton (YHWH). This name for god is good news because it opens up a way of communicating with God and knowing that we are not alone. It’s hollowness is also a way of speaking of God’s self-emptying. At first Tetragrammaton is only used in worship, but is later used in scripture and is replaced with words such as adonai (Hebrew), Kurios (Septuagint), or Dominos (Latin).
Hear, O Israel: The LORD is our God, the LORD alone.
Deuteronomy 6:4
• The Shema, is an example of a norma normans non normata creedal statement, that is one found in Scripture. It is creedal in that it is short, is meant to be repeated, and is meant to shape identity. (8/31) Additionally, some use it as the basis for a modified monotheism known as henotheism in which one believes that there is the possibility that for “us/jews” there is one God, though other people may have other Gods (e.g.Baal).
I am the LORD, and there is no other; besides me there is no god.
Isaiah 45:5
• This verse reflects a Jewish view of monotheism in which there are other idols but no other gods. Contrast this with henotheism in which one believes that there is the possibility that for us there is one God, though other people may have other Gods (e.g.Baal) Or contrast with Christian monotheism which is qualified because it is Trinitarian, which we state when we qualify our understanding of monotheism in our professions of faith.
Simon Peter answered, "You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God." And Jesus answered him, "Blessed are you, Simon son of Jonah! For flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but my Father in heaven."
Matthew 16:16-17
• One way we are drawn to knowledge of God and faith in God is connaturality or inclination, sometimes called spiritual instinct. This verse shows that knowledge of the existence of God and even an understanding of the Trinity and Incarnation can be a reward for those who approach him and are open to his existence.
Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit.
Matthew 28:19
• This “baptismal formula” which was thought to have been used by the early church in first two centuries is still used in church liturgy. It is one of many verses that demonstrate the revelation of Trinitarian doctrine in scripture. In the 4th century, the church pointed to the use of this formula as a way of arguing against Arian beliefs. They said danger of idolatry if you are worshipping Christ and Christ is not God then you are an idolater. Also if you don’t believe in trinity, then you are being baptized in wrong name.
Now when all the people were baptized, and when Jesus also had been baptized and was praying, the heaven was opened, and the Holy Spirit descended upon him in bodily form like a dove. And a voice came from heaven, "You are my Son, the Beloved; with you I am well pleased."
Luke 3:21-22
• Christian doctrine is derived from the life of Jesus as revealed in Scripture. This verse is an example of one narrative from Jesus’ life which supports the doctrine of the Trinity since all three persons of the Trinity are present at the Baptism (Jesus is being baptized, Holy Spirit descends as a dove, and Father’s voice is heard).
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. He was in the beginning with God. All things came into being through him, and without him not one thing came into being.
John 1:1-3
• One the many ways to think about theology is as the Word FROM God. (theo + logos) In John 1:1, we see that Jesus is theo logos, the Word of God. But we also recognize that, the Gospels are orderly accounts of Words FROM God handed down to eyewitnesses and servants of the logos. (8/29) Additionally, we learn that Jesus IS God. He played a role in Creation.
And the Word became flesh and lived among us, and we have seen his glory, the glory as of a father's only son, full of grace and truth.
John 1:4
• The doctrine of the Trinity is witnessed by NT, creeds of early Christians, and liturgies of the early church. This verse was connected with the practice that Pliny noted that Christians ascribe glory to Jesus as if to God. Later hymns such as “Oh Gladsome Light” will also worship Christ as joyful light of the Father. This verse taken with other verses that are more Triatic will lead to western liturgies such as the Gloria Patri: Glory be to the Father and to the son and to the Holy Spirit. (9/12, Dr. Colon did not sight this verse, but these notes seem applicable.)
No one has ever seen God. It is God the only Son, who is close to the Father's heart, who has made him known.
John 1:18
• There are many ways to think about what theology means. One is as the word OF God. Theos (God) + logos (Word). Jesus is the theo-logos. In John 1:18, we learn that no one has ever seen God, but the Son is so close to God’s heart “that he makes him known.” The Son exegetes the Father. Christianity is not properly a religion of the book. It is the religion of the Word (Jesus).
When the Advocate comes, whom I will send to you from the Father, the Spirit of truth who comes from the Father, he will testify on my behalf.
John 15:26
• This verse is an example of language of “proceeding” (“coming from”), one of the two types of processions used in reference to the Trinity (the other is begetting). Also, this verse reflects two Trinitarian missions. 1) Father sends the Son and 2) Father sends the Spirit. Missions might be visible or invisible and are connected. The Son being sent is still the Son. The Spirit is still the Spirit. The immanent Trinity is the Economic Trinity and vice versa. (9/14)
Jesus said to them again, "Peace be with you. As the Father has sent me, so I send you." When he had said this, he breathed on them and said to them, "Receive the Holy Spirit. If you forgive the sins of any, they are forgiven them; if you retain the sins of any, they are retained."
John 20:21-23
• Christian doctrine is derived from the life of Jesus as revealed in Scripture. This verse is an example of one narrative from Jesus’ life which supports the doctrine of the Trinity since all three persons of the Trinity are present after the resurrection Here Jesus is appearing to the disciples after crucifixion and shows them his hand and side, he invokes the father’s name, and breathes the Spirit into the disciples. (9/12)
For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and wickedness of those who by their wickedness suppress the truth. For what can be known about God is plain to them, because God has shown it to them. Ever since the creation of the world his eternal power and divine nature, invisible though they are, have been understood and seen through the things he has made.
Romans 1:18-20
• There are many sources of theology (liturgy, history and culture, Christian life, etc.) beyond creeds and doctrine. In this verse, Paul points out that Creation is a legitimate source for theology. Though one might contrast this with Paul’s call in which theology was not “plain to him” until his experience on the road to Damascus. (8/31) Maximus will argue that since the fall our physical senses deceive us and thus natural theology fails us. Material creation can only be rightly understood through invisible things (i.e. Christ).
If you confess with your lips that Jesus is Lord and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved.
Romans 10:9
If you confess with your lips that Jesus is Lord and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved.
• This verse/confession of faith raises two key questions: 1) How is faith connected to salvation? 2) Is having faith necessary for knowing God and getting to know God through theology? Aquinas believed than an old woman today who has faith has more knowledge of Christ than the philosophers did before Christ’s coming. In other words, though theology involves reason, it must be guided by faith in order to make claims on a life lived. It cannot be just a system of doctrine. (9/5)
So faith comes from what is heard, and what is heard comes through the word of Christ.
Romans 10:17
• This “word” is used to express connaturality, the belief that in order for one to have faith, God must encounter the person and speak first and move the person to believe and speak. In this way, faith is a gift. CF. In Matthew when Christ encounters Peter and asks ‘Who do you say I am?” Peter, who has heard Christ, can respond, “You are the Christ, son of the living God. (9/5/12)
O the depth of the riches and wisdom and knowledge of God! How unsearchable are his judgments and how inscrutable his ways! For who has known the mind of the Lord? Or who has been his counselor? Or who has given a gift to him, to receive a gift in return? For from him and through him and to him are all things. To him be the glory forever. Amen.
Romans 11:33-36
• God’s self-manifestation is never exhausted; there is always more to God than what God has revealed. As “kneeling theologians,” this limitation should not frustrate us but lead us to praise and worship.. If our theological work does not lead us to worship/doxology, then we must examine what is happening. (8/31) This verse also helps us to cope with unfathomable nature of evil. (9/26)
Therefore I want you to understand that no one speaking by the Spirit of God ever says "Let Jesus be cursed!" and no one can say "Jesus is Lord" except by the Holy Spirit.
1 Corinthians 12:3
• This verse can be interpreted in a similar way as Romans 10:17. Faith is a gift from God and is only possible when God is moving the person to speak and believe. God must encounter the person, and then the person can have faith. Some counter that Romans also states that God’s voice has gone out to all the world which would give support to the idea of implicit faith. (9/5)
The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, the love of God, and the communion of the Holy Spirit be with all of you.
2 Corinthians 13:13
• This benediction in Paul’s letter to the Corinthians demonstrates his understanding of the Trinity. This is one of many verses that demonstrate the revelation of Trinitarian doctrine in scripture. Others are seen in narratives of Jesus’ life (annunciation, baptism, crucifixion, resurrection) and in other letters of Paul. (9/12)
Let the same mind be in you that was in Christ Jesus, who, though he was in the form of God, did not regard equality with God as something to be exploited, but emptied himself, taking the form of a slave, being born in human likeness. And being found in human form, he humbled himself and became obedient to the point of death-- even death on a cross. Therefore God also highly exalted him and gave him the name that is above every name, so that at the name of Jesus every knee should bend, in heaven and on earth and under the earth, and every tongue should confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father.
Phillippians 2:5-11
• This verse, in hymnic form, is an example of a norma normans non normata creedal statement found in Scripture. It is creedal in that it is short, is meant to be repeated, is meant to shape identity and sum up the faith. (8/31)
He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation; for in him all things in heaven and on earth were created, things visible and invisible, whether thrones or dominions or rulers or powers-- all things have been created through him and for him. He himself is before all things, and in him all things hold together.
Colossians 1:15-17
• To say that we are made in the image of God is to say that we are made in the image of the Trinity. This verse calls us to ponder how we are made in the image of Christ, not just the first person of the Trinity. As created beings, we are composite beings made of nothing (ex nihilo) and yet in a world of spirit and matter. We are soul, spirit, and flesh. (9/28)
Long ago God spoke to our ancestors in many and various ways by the prophets, but in these last days he has spoken to us by a Son, whom he appointed heir of all things, through whom he also created the worlds.
Hebrews 1:1-2
• [From S.Dean’s guide] This passage speaks to the various revelations of God to humanity throughout time, referring specifically to the prophets and culminating in the Incarnation of Jesus Christ. The idea of revelation is significant because it implies that human beings cannot know everything about God through creation or natural theology; we need revelation from God to know who God is and what God is like, and even with that revelation we do not know everything about God. Christ is the most important revelation because it is through his life, death, and resurrection that we see most clearly what God is like; that knowledge can be revealed through Christ because he is the eternal Son of God, the second person of the Holy Trinity.
For to which of the angels did God ever say, "You are my Son; today I have begotten you"? Or again, "I will be his Father, and he will be my Son"?
Hebrews 1:5
• This verse is an example of language of “begetting” -- one of the two types of processions used in reference to the Trinity. God does not beget in the way that WE beget. Begetting is not a Creative act, but it is a word that shows relation of origin. God begets the Son not as something outside himself, but within himself. (9/14) This verse also reminds us of the existence of angels and the diversity of creation. (9/28)
Are not all angels spirits in the divine service, sent to serve for the sake of those who are to inherit salvation?
Hebrews 1:14
• Humans are not the only creatures made in image of God. Angels are also made in image of God. This verse reveals two characteristics of angels. They are God’s servants carrying out God’s commands, and they are humanity’s friends, sent by God to protect God’s people and to engender them to each other.(9/28)
Now faith is the assurance of things hoped for, the conviction of things not seen.
Hebrews 11:1
• This verse expresses that faith is characterized by an element of assurance and certitude, a concerns for good things hoped for, an eye for the future, a concern for things we can’t attain on our own, and things not yet seen. (9/5)
Every generous act of giving, with every perfect gift, is from above, the Father of lights, with whom there is no variation or shadow due to change.
James 1:17
• One might use Thomas’s threefold way (Triplex Via) to understand ‘father of lights” as a divine name for God. God is stated positively (Via Positiva) as the “Father of lights.” BUT, according to the Via Negativa, God is not like other lights in that there is no variation or shadow. And according to the third way, Eminentiae, God is not a Father or a Light in the ways that we as mortals speak of father or light. (9/7)
His divine power has given us everything needed for life and godliness, through the knowledge of him who called us by his own glory and goodness. Thus he has given us, through these things, his precious and very great promises, so that through them you may escape from the corruption that is in the world because of lust, and may become participants of the divine nature.
2 Peter 1:3-4
The Wesley’s focus on the economy of salvation in their hymns on the Trinity, calling out works of divine action and how the Trinity works together. In the hymn, “Filled with plentitude divine” which is based on Charles’ understanding of this verse, one sees that the themes of theosis and divination (godliness and faith in response to the work of the trinity) are central to Wesleyan Trinitarian theology. (9/14)
Trinitarian theology is a contemplative exercise oriented toward beatitude, an exercise of wisdom tending toward the blessed vision of God the Trinity in eternal life.
Gilles Emery, The Trinity: An Introduction to Catholic Doctrine of the Triune God, 21st cent.
For Emery, the task of theology is to render an account of faith and hope that is revealed by our Triune God and shaped ecclesially (through the church and its traditions and its focus on the Trinity). Christian knowledge is “faith seeking understanding” and is made intelligible through a Christian life lived; in other words it is both conceptual and experiential. Contrast with Kathryn Tanner, for whom systematic theology is more personal and which takes into account diverse traditions. (xiv, precept notes)
The theologian’s thinking therefore properly draws on the worship of the Christian community and is in duty bound to contribute to it. The specific task of the theologian lies in the realm of doctrine.
Geoffrey Wainwright, Doxology (p. 3), 20th Cent
Wainwright casts the task of theology as an interrelationship between worship, doctrine, and life. Each facet informs the other. While the theologian aims to present a coherent systematic vision of doctrine (lex credendi), that doctrine is derived in part from the experiences of worship (prayers, liturgies, hymns – lex orandi). Doctrine also offers a vision that comes into focus in worship. So both “lex orandi, lex credendi” and “lex credendi, lex orandi” are true. [La vivendi – Life - is also both a source and a manifestation of doctrine.] (8/31, p.3)
In order to witness to and be a disciple of Jesus, every Christian has to figure out for him or herself what Christianity is all about, what Christianity stands for in the world. Figuring that out is the primary task of systematic theology.
Kathryn Tanner, Jesus, Humanity, and the Trinity: A Brief Systematic Theology, 2001
For Tanner, the nature and task of theology is a personal responsibility whereby one surveys the diverse theologies available and then develops a unified whole that can be lived out in one’s life. One cannot separate Christian doctrine from a life of discipleship and witness (Christian ethics). Contrast this with Gilles Emery who sees the development of a systematic theology as rooted in ecclesial tradition and the Patristics. (xiii, precept notes)
Worship, then, is a source of doctrine in so far as it is the place in which God makes himself known to humanity in a saving encounter. The human words and acts used in worship are a doctrinal locus in so far as either God makes them the vehicle of his self-communication or they are fitting responses to God's presence and action.
Geoffrey Wainwright, Doxology, 20th cent
Sources of theology: Liturgy. Lex orandi, lex credendi.
Theological significance: One source of doctrine and theology is our worship practices. Worship is primary theology because it is in worship that we encounter the living God who we then write things about. Worship is first and foremost, God’s redeeming act through Christ in the Spirit; therefore, the creeds have a liturgical matrix from which they come down to us. (8/31, p. 242)
Hymns can take all the risks of exploration and particularity; and while many turn out to be ephemeral, some transcend their origins and live on to become part of the classical treasury.
Geoffrey Wainwright, Doxology [“Creeds and Hymns”], 20th cent
Sources of Theology: Hymns
Hymns are secondary to doctrine and creeds, but they are useful for shaping faith. There is a place for new “fresh” hymns that highlight Trinitarian doctrine and relate it to particular contemporary circumstances. Many songs today neglect the Trinity, which is a danger since being Christian is to be Trinitarian. We have to remember that we can be exuberant and theological at the same time. (215, 9/14)
We believe in God, the Father Almighty; Creator of the heavens and the earth; Creator of all the peoples and all cultures; Creator of all tongues and races.
Justo Gonzales, “Hispanic Creed” in the UMC Hymnal in Spanish, 20th cent.
Sources of Theology: Creeds
Creeds are a source of theology. Some churches have developed new creeds in response to inadequacy of language and/or political focus of existing creeds. Also, new creeds such as this one aim to ensure that Christianity is a living, dynamic faith. Note how this differs from the Apostle’s Creed. While it follows creedal structure, it emphasizes the universality of all cultures, solidarity with others, and the reign of God. It also takes local language (e.g. “great fiesta”) and lifts it for use in church. (8/31)
We are not alone, we live in God's world. We believe in God: who has created and is creating, who has come in Jesus, the Word made flesh, to reconcile and make new, who works in us and others by the Spirit.
Affirmation of Faith of the United Church of Canada, 23rd General Council, 20th cent.
Sources of Theology: Creeds
Some churches have developed new creeds in response to inadequacy of language and/or political focus of existing creeds. Also, new creeds such as this one aim to ensure that Christianity is a living, dynamic faith. Note how this differs from the Apostle’s creed in that it does not use “I believe” and instead uses “we language.” It has a more ecumenical and inclusive bent than traditional creeds.
I have already said force of arms obliges me to surrender to you. But for the rest, it is clear that neither force nor violence can impede the will in its free operation. So although I groan as a captive, you cannot prevent me from saying in my heart. I worship the great God of the Seeds!
Sor Juana de la Cruz, Loa to “Divine Narcissus,”17th century.
Reconciling the revelation of our history and theology with that of other people
Our story as Christians calls us to reconcile our praise for God with the messiness of history. In this quote, we recognize that our theology and our faith has been passed through human hands stained with sin, but nevertheless we praise. Also brings into view the distinctions in act of faith (believing as a verb/fides qua creditor) and what one believes in (noun/fides quae creditor). Are we worshiping the same God or not? (9/5 and 9/7, class introduction).
Although by the revelation of grace in this life we cannot know of God "what He is," and thus are united to Him as to one unknown; still we know Him more fully according as many and more excellent of His effects are demonstrated to us, and according as we attribute to Him some things known by divine revelation, to which natural reason cannot reach, as, for instance, that God is Three and One.
Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, “Knowledge of God,” 13th Cent
We have a more perfect knowledge of God by faith than by natural reason. Natural reason is a combination of knowledge of things we can perceive through our senses and a “natural intellectual light.” Neither of these provide us knowledge about mysteries such as the Trinity. “This is evident in that not one of the philosophers before the coming of Christ could, through his own powers, know God and the means necessary for salvation as well as any old woman since Christ’s coming knows Him through faith.” (p. 64, 9/5)
Names are used analogically in two ways: either because many things have a proportion to one thing... or because one thing has a proportion to another. And in the second way some things are said of God and creatures analogically, and not in a purely equivocal nor in a purely univocal sense.
Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, “The Names of God,” 13th century
How does human language which is limited describe God?
For Thomas, human language falls short of being able to describe God because it is creaturely, but it does have truthfulness. This quote is fleshed out in Thomas’ threefold way [Triplex Via]. 1) Via Positiva: We say things literally about God based on things we know. 2) Via Negativa; We strip away meanings recognizing the limits to our language. 3) Eminentiae: We acknowledge that God is “x” in a more excellent way than for creatures. (67-68, 9/7)
He is neither nothing nor is He not, nor is He and is He not, rather He is the font and the origin of all principles of being and not-being.
Nicolaus of Cusa, “On the Hidden God,” 15th century
God’s hiddenness and transcendence
Cusa’s conception of God is apophatic in that God’s simplicity precedes everything nameable and not namable. As Augustine says, “If you comprehend him, he’s not God.” And yet, though humanity cannot properly conceive of God, or name God, God deserves all praise. (9/5, p.153)
The Trinity is not one topic of reflection among others, but rather it constitutes the heart of Christian faith. To affirm that the Trinity is ‘the substance of the New Testament’ is to recognize that the Trinity is found at the center of the Gospel, that it is the essential reality of the Gospel, and that it is the very object of faith, hope, and charity.
Gilles Emery, The Trinity: An Introduction to Catholic Doctrine of the Triune God, 2011
What is the content of faith (fides quae creditor)?
Emery stands with the Catechism of the Catholic Church, that the Trinity is the central mystery of Christian faith and life as is ultimately the mystery of God and the source of all other mysteries. It is the most fundamental teaching of the faith. Reflecting on “fides quae creditor,” Emery would say that the message of the Trinity and the messenger (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) are inseparable. One believes the Trinity because that is who God has revealed Godself to be. (xi, 9/5)
At times one finds opposed to Trinitarian faith a rather superficial argument: the word ‘Trinity’ is absent from the Bible….But the reality signified by the word “Trinity” is exactly that which the baptismal formula and the doxologies—themselves found in Scripture—express: the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are ‘co-numbered’; or ‘numbered together,’ they are mentioned or ‘counted one with the other (the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit) because they belong to the same order of reality.
Gilles Emery, The Trinity: An Introduction to Catholic Doctrine of the Triune God, 21st cent
Scriptural Foundations for Trinitarian Faith
The doctrine of the Trinity is found in Scripture in as much as the three persons of the Trinity are present at key points in the narrative of Jesus’ life: the Annunciation (1:35), Baptism (3:21), and Crucifixion (23:46) in Luke and they are at the Resurrection in John 20:19. Additionally, Paul mentions the Trinity in Romans as the sanctifier of his mission, and in counseling the Roman Christians on a relational way of life. Finally, it is seen in the Baptismal formula in Matthew 28:19 and in the benediction in 2 Corinthians 13:13. (p.8, 9/12)
Unite the pair so long disjoin’d, Knowledge and vital Piety: Learning and Holiness combined, And Truth and Love, [for all to] see, In those who up to Thee we give, Thine, wholly thine, to die and live.
Charles Wesley, “Come, Father, Son, and Holy Ghost,”18th cent
Doctrine and the Trinity: How liturgy reflects Trinitarian belief
For the Wesleys, Trinitarian faith is a gift from God – from all three persons of the Trinity who work together. In response to that gift of love, we are to live holy lives of faith and godliness (euosebia) in addition to works of piety such as scriptural study. Their Trinitarian theology is reflected in a life lived. (9/14)
My notions true are notions vain; By them I cannot grace obtain, Or saved from sin arise: Knowledge acquired by books or creeds My learned self-righteous pride it feeds; ’Tis love that edifies.
Charles Wesley, “Fixed on the Athanasian Mound” from Hymns and Prayers on the Trinity, 18th cent
Doctrine and the Trinity: How liturgy reflects Trinitarian belief
For the Wesleys, Trinitarian faith is a gift from God. In response to that gift of love, we are not to believe and study doctrines for their own sake. Instead, we are to live holy lives of faith and godliness (euosebia). These things go together. (9/14)
And there is a certain image of the Trinity: the mind itself and its knowledge, that, its progeny and its word concerning itself, and love. These three are one and one substance. And the progeny is not less while the mind knows itself so much as it is; nor is love less, while the mind loves itself as much as it knows and as much as it is.
Augustine, On the Trinity, 400 CE
[Trinitarian Controversy?] and vestigia Trinitatis
Vestiges or traces of the Trinity exist in creation that reveal something about the Trinity. These vestiges are apparent in humanity because the interconnectedness and simultaneous distinctiveness of the mind, knowledge, and love in humans which is analogous to the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit of the Trinity. Note that Augustine is using an analogy to explain the equality of the three persons of the Trinity even though one is the progeny of the other.
Therefore the mind itself, love, and its knowledge are three specific things, and these three are one, and when they are perfect they are equal.
Augustine, On the Trinity, 400 CE
Conceptions of the Trinity: vestigia Trinitatis
Augustine uses the analogy of the mind, knowledge, and love (vestiges of the Trinity) in the human being to describe the relationship between the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit in the Trinity. In both cases, the individual elements are distinct from one another because they have unique characteristics and actions. However, the members are interconnected in such a way that the three are equally participatory in the actions and being of each member. [S. Dean]
If therefore the Son, because of his proper relationship with the Father and because he is the proper offspring of his essence, is not a creature, but is one in essence (homoousios) with the Father: the Holy Spirit likewise, because of his proper relationship with the Son, from whom he is given to all men and whose is all that he has, cannot be a creature, and it is impious to call him so.
Athanasius, Third Letter to Serapion, 4th Century
Trinitarian Controversy
Athanasius has argued, against Arius, that the Son is equal with the Father because they share the same essence or substance of divinity (homoousios). Here, Athanasius takes his argument a step further to include the Holy Spirit as an equal participant in the Trinity. Because he has established that the Son is equal to the Father, he can now assert that because the Holy Spirit has an equal relationship to the Son, the Spirit is also not a creature but is divine as well. (p.85) [From S. Dean’s study guide]
If there is a Triad, and if the faith is faith in a Triad, let them tell us whether there was always a Triad, or whether there was once when it was not a Triad. If the Triad is eternal, the Spirit is not a creature, for he eternally exists with and in the Word. As for creatures, there was once when they were not.
Athanasius, Third Letter to Serapion, 4th century
Trinitarian Controversy
The Spirit is not a creature, and cannot be a creature because if it were, then there would be a time when the Trinity was not a Trinity. Rather, both Spirit and Son exist together with the Father, equal, sharing in the same essence, and co-eternal. See above. (From another study guide)
But in reference to divine nature, we have learned that this is not the case [that] the Father does something individually, in which the Son does not join, or the Son individually works something without the Spirit; but every activity which pervades from God to creation and is named according to our manifold designs starts off from the Father, proceeds through the Son, and is completed by the Holy Spirit.
Gregory of Nyssa, “On Not Three Gods” to Ablabius, 4th Century
The Trinitarian Controversy/Christological Controversy
In the wake of the Nicene Council, Gregory writes a letter against the notion that the Trinity represents three gods and against the notion that the Son and Spirit are subordinate. According to Gregory, the differences between the three persons of the Trinity reside in their relationships with each other. One cannot split the tasks of the Trinity into different roles. There is unity of action from the father, through the son, and in the Spirit. A conception of three persons with different roles would be Tritheism/Idolatry. (Precept notes).
Gratitude toward God for the gift of creation opens the way for a renewed understanding and appropriation of the work of redemption, and of the unity of God’s work of creation and redemption. We believe in one God, who both creates and redeems. The affirmation of this unity is indispensable for a right understanding of the Eucharist and for human care of the environment.
Methodist-Catholic Dialogue Round, “Heaven and Earth are full of Your Glory”, 21st
The Sacramentality of Creation
Sacraments are things/acts set apart for sacred use, visual signs of God’s grace. To fully understand the Eucharist, one must also see Creation and Christ’s presence in it as sacrament, to approach Creation as beautiful and good, to listen to it, to have wonder, and to seek a eucharistic form of life. And yet one must also recognize that there is fallenness in Creation. Calling Creation a sacrament is to say that the God who saves and the God who creates are the same God. (9/21)
By restoring humanity to God, Christ restores our true nature, which includes our role to be the representative of the Creator to creation and the representative of creation to the Creator.
Methodist-Catholic Dialogue Round, “Heaven and Earth are full of Your Glory”, 21st
Sacramentality of Creation
We are called have a vision of the sacramentality of Creation and for our participating role in it. To do this, we recognize the goodness of the world in conjunction with its fallenness. We recognize that the God who created it is the same as the God who redeems it through Christ. We realize that we need the Eucharist to call us to a Eucharistic form of life, a transformational way of living in which we see everything and person as a gift from God and we give thanks to God for all Creation. (9/21)
The very way in which we celebrate the Eucharist--by using words, gestures, signs, and symbols, all taken from this good earth and from the way humans communicate--offers a fruitful avenue for exploring the theology of creation and redemption, as well as the way in which this sacrament shapes how we live the Christian life.
Methodist-Catholic Dialogue Round, “Heaven and Earth are full of Your Glory”, 21st
Sacramentality of Creation
The sacrament of the Eucharist can help us to more fully understand the sacramentality of Creation. When we bring ourselves to the table, we join in the symphony of creation and celebrate its goodness in the bread/wine (grain/grapes). We also acknowledge that Creation is wounded and bound by sin, but the Eucharist gives us a foretaste of redemption that comes through the body and blood of Christ. We are transformed through the act of Eucharist and the Holy Spirit to recognize that everything in Creation is a gift. We begin to see God in the dark places and to acknowledge that God reigns everywhere. (9/21)
Moreover these manner of creatures of this sensible world signify the invisible things of God, partly because God is the Origin, Exemplar, and End, of every creature, and because every effect is a sign of a cause, and an example of an exemplar, and a way for the end, towards which it leads.
St. Bonaventure, “The Journey of the Mind into God,” 13th cent
Natural Theology
Bonaventure here provides the basis of all natural theology. Because God’s vestiges are found in created beings, humans are held accountable for seeing the glory of God. Even though creatures are sinners, they still exhibit God’s glory and God can be known through them. This understanding of God through natural theology can have two functions: to bolster faith of non-Christians and to serve apologetically for the sake of trying to correct those without faith. (11, Precept notes)
Adam’s body before he sinned could be said to be mortal in one respect and immortal in another.
Augustine, Literal Meaning of Genesis (415 CE)
Effects of Original Sin
In the garden, Adam was both able to die and able NOT to die. His immortality was not part of his nature (not a part of his natural body), but was from the tree of life (a gift from god). When he sinned, he cut himself off from the tree of life and thus became able to die. If he had not sinned, he would have been able NOT to die. Consequently, all humanity is born into a state of mortality (slavery to sin and death). Only spiritual beings are not able to die, and this is what humanity will become in the resurrection. (p.204-205, precept notes)
Sin destroys us from within. It goes against human flourishing and happiness; therefore, sin is anti-God, and so anti-creation and anti-human. Sin is the most unnatural thing there is.
Daniel Castelo, Theological Theodicy, 21st cent.
Objective vs. Subjective Nature of Sin
Sin can be defined objectively or subjectively. An objective definition of sin is one in which humans “miss the mark” or do something that is not in line with God’s commands, thus reaping an external punishment. This type of sin can become systemic (e.g. racism). The above quote represents a “subjective” approach to sin which emphasizes how sin affects us from the inside out. According to this view sin is bad for the core of our being and cannot sustain happiness. It causes us to live in a substandard state of being less than what we were meant to be. The cure for this disease is Jesus, the Great Physician (p.70, 9/28)
If the triune God creates in freedom and out of love, then the expectation would seem to be that creation would return the gesture, that it would worship and behold God freely and out of love as well. But the very nature of freedom and love is that they are actions that pertain logically to agents.
Daniel Castelo, Theological Theodicy, 2012
Humanity and Evil
Humans question why there is evil in the world. One approach is to look at causality. As the Creator, God is the primary cause of the cosmos, that is all there is. But God created humans who are self-determining moral agents. Thus human agency is secondary causality. Creation is not God, and can reject God (because humanity was made to be engaged in freedom and love). When humanity engages in freedom and love, it thrives. When he rejects love, it alienates itself from its Creator. This state of alienation can be called evil. (see Castelo, page 60-61).
Whereas it is true that people often grow in their appreciation of the good because of their acquaintance with evil, suffering, and the like, an account of the good that requires evil and suffering so that it is even “better” is actually a deficient good.
Daniel Castelo, Theological Theodicy, 21st century
Humanity and suffering
Castelo argues that evil, suffering, and sin are NOT part of original creation. They are distortions to God’s order. In our fallen world, God may draw good out of bad enabling us to have a greater appreciation of the good in contrast to sin and evil, but ultimately “the endgame of suffering and pain is death,” a denial of life and a consequence of the fall. The fall led not to just fallen will and agency, but also to fallen bodies. Only the Father, through Christ can restore us to life. (74-76).
The image of God, in which he had been made, was obliterated.
John Calvin, Commentaries on the First Book of Moses Called Genesis, 16th century.
Original Sin
In this writing Calvin sees humanity as originally created in God’s image manifested as God’s righteousness and holiness (92) and God’s mind (perfect intelligence) and heart (95) or “perfect order.” In the fall, this image was obliterated and destroyed. This understanding forms the basis of Calvin’s view of “Total Depravity.” Interestingly, elsewhere in this document, Calvin merely says the image of God is “corrupted” which does not seem to be “total depravity.” (p. 92, 139, precept notes)
[B]oth repentance, and fruits meet for repentance, are, in some sense, necessary to justification. But they are not necessary in the same sense with faith, nor in the same degree. Not in the same degree; for those fruits are only necessary conditionally; if there be time and opportunity for them. Otherwise a man may be justified without them, as was the thief upon the cross (if we may call him so; for a late writer has discovered that he was no thief, but a very honest and respectable person!); but he cannot be justified without faith; this is impossible.
Wesley, “The Scripture Way of Salvation”, 18th cent
Debate over role of faith of assurance in justification
The only thing absolutely necessary for justification is faith. A person may repent (cease doing evil and begin to do good), but the person will not be justified without faith. Therefore, a dying person could be justified even though s/he would not have time to repent through actions. That said, repentance and fruit are remotely necessary, though not immediately necessary as is faith. (p. 376, my interpretation. Will be discussed in class on 10/10)
Faith is the condition, and the only condition, of sanctification, exactly as it is of justification. It is the condition: none is sanctified but he that believes; without faith no man is sanctified. And it is the only condition: this alone is sufficient for sanctification. Every one that believes is sanctified, whatever else he has or has not. In other words, no man is sanctified till he believes: every man when he believes is sanctified.
John Wesley [Week 7], “The Scripture Way of Salvation”, 18th cent
Debate over role of faith of assurance in justification/sanctification
The only thing absolutely necessary for sanctification is faith. A person may repent (perform acts of piety and mercy), but the person will not be sanctified without faith. Still repentance and good works are remotely necessary though not in the same degree as faith. Repentance after justification is different. It does not suppose the doubt of favor of God, but it recognizes that sin still clings to us and acknowledges our helplessness. This gives us a desire to perform acts of piety or mercy if there is time and opportunity for them. A dying person could be sanctified even though s/he would not have time to repent through actions. (p. 376-78, my interpretation. Will be discussed in class on 10/10)
Do you believe we are sanctified by faith? Be true then to your principle; and look for this blessing just as you are, neither better nor worse; as a poor sinner that has still nothing to pay, nothing to plead, but “Christ died.” And if you look for it as you are, then expect it now. Stay for nothing: why should you? Christ is ready; and He is all you want. He is waiting for you: He is at the door!
John Wesley, “The Scripture Way of Salvation”, 18th cent
Debate over role of faith of assurance in justification/sanctification
The only thing absolutely necessary for sanctification is faith. This faith has three characteristics: 1) One must believe that God promises us faith in Scripture (circumcision of the heart for us and our children to love the Lord with heart and soul). 2) What God has promised, God has the ability to do. All things are possible with God. 3) God can sanctify us now and at any time, and that he does it “just as we are.” We can’t perform good works to earn sanctification. God sanctifies when we seek it by faith. (379-380, my interpretation.)
When [Lutherans] stress that God's grace is forgiving love ("the favor of God"), they do not thereby deny the renewal of the Christian's life. They intend rather to express that justification remains free from human cooperation and is not dependent on the life-renewing effects of grace in human beings. When Catholics emphasize the renewal of the interior person through the reception of grace imparted as a gift to the believer, they wish to insist that God's forgiving grace always brings with it a gift of new life, which in the Holy Spirit becomes effective in active love.
The Lutheran World Federation and the Catholic Church, “Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification”, 20th cent.
Doctrine of Justification
This document reflects an agreement between Lutherans and Catholics regarding the basic truths of the doctrine justification by faith, resolving a conflict that has lasted since the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. This passage shows that both groups believe that justification is enacted by God rather than by humans, but that the Holy Spirit then inspires the justified person to act in love. This quote reflects both a dependence on God and a Trinitarian notion of God through the inclusion of the Holy Spirit (and the Son elsewhere in the document). Where more minor doctrinal differences exist, they are not of the degree to warrant condemnation. [Revised from From S. Dean’s study guide].
53. The task of systematic construction has both an internal and an external orientation. In its internal orientation—what might be called the dogmatic-analytic element of the task—systematic theology concerns itself with ordered exposition of Christian claims about reality. In its external orientation—what might be called the apologetic-hermeneutical element of the task—systematic theology concerns itself with the explication and defense of Christian claims about reality in order to bring to light their justification, relevance, and value.
Oxford Handbook of Systematic Theology, p. 7, 21st century
This quote provides the two-fold purpose of systematic theology. First, it attempts to describe the understandings and beliefs of Christianity. Second, it goes further to defend those claims, which makes systematic theologians much like apologists. In this way, it raises the question of whether theologians need to be Christians in order to accurately describe and adequately defend the Christian faith. At the very least, this quote requires systematic theologians to describe Christianity from a sympathetic rather than a critical approach.
Filioque
“And the Son”
– The Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son added to Nicene creed at the Council of Toledo in 589; meant to affirm the divinity of the Holy Spirit
Theotokos
“God-Bearer”
- Cyril argues contra Nestorius that Mary was Theotokos and not merely Christotokos.
- Nestorius is concerned with defending the impassibility of the divinity of Christ, as well as the two natures; says Theotokos is incompatible with the full humanity of Christ
- Cyril argues that this tends toward adoptionism (a human in conjunction with the Logos) and has both soteriological (“what has not been assumed cannot be redeemed”) and doxological (“we do not worship a human being in conjunction with the Logos”) implications
- Affirms the eternal, hypostatic union of the human and divine natures of Christ
- Affirmed at Council of Ephesus in 431
Impassibility
The doctrine that God is not subject to action from without, changing emotions from within, or feelings of pain or pleasure caused by another being
- At issue in Nestorius’ exchange with Cyril; Nestorius is concerned that the birth, suffering, and death of Christ are being attributed to the divine nature if the term Theotokos is used
Peccatum Originale
“Original sin”
- The state in which man has been captive since the fall
- Distinguished from Adam’s peccatum originale originans, “the originating original sin”
Homoousios
“One Nature” – the Father and the Son are of the same essence; agreed upon at Nicea during the Trinitarian controversy.
- Controversy between Arius and Athanasius
- We read Athanasius, “Third Letter to Serapion”
Perichoresis
Mutual indwelling or interpenetration of the three divine persons who are reciprocally in each other (Emery; see also Wainwright 23)
Felix Culpa
“Happy fault”
- Refers to the original sin that brought about redemption through Christ, affirming that the cross was not “plan B” but God’s original plan from eternity (Rev. 13.8)
Kurios
The name used for the tetragrammaton in the Septuagint; a word from the realm of politics, used to refer to Roman rulers
Nicea
325, Council of Nicea
- 1st ecumenical council, convenes to discuss the teachings of Arius, among other things
- The creed borrows language from Greek philosophical thought
- Affirms the consubstantiality of the Son with the Father (homousios), divinity unity and divinity of the Son
Crux probat omnia
“The cross tests all” (and the name of Michael J. Gorman’s blog. I’m just sayin’)
- Luther wrote this, meaning that the true theologian is not merely a lover of wisdom but a friend of the cross. This cruciform life is the test of true theology; distinguishes between the “theologian of glory” and the “theologian of the cross”
Lex credendi, lex orandi
“The rule of belief is the rule of prayer”
- From St. Prosper of Aquitaine
- Asserts the inseparability of the life of worship from the life of witness; what we say and what we teach, doctrine and praise.
- Wainwright: “The language of worship mediates the substance on which theologians reflect” (21); “Worship influences doctrine, and doctrine worship” (218)
Fides qua creditur
“The faith by which we believe” – the act of faith (verb)
- An intellectual (not to be confused with rational act)
- An act of the will
- Augustine: “To believe is to think with assent”
Fides quae creditur
“The faith which we believe” – the content of the faith we profess/creed.
Revelabilia and Revelata
Terms pertaining to Trinitarian axioms:
- Revelabilia: revealed truths accessible to reason
- Revelata
o Revealed truths that enlarge something attainable by reason
o Also things attainable only through reason – i.e., the doctrine of the Trinity
o Therefore, the doctrine of the Trinity requires faith for its reception, and is revealed to us only by the indwelling Holy Spirit
Sacramentality
Sacramentum (Latin) – an oath or a sign of Roman Legionnaires
Mysterium (Greek)
- The foundation for sacramentality is the incarnation; God’s presence in the created order
- A sacramental vision of creation affirms that the God who creates is the God who saves, and who is actively redeeming the world.
Kosmos
The fullness of the created order, visible and invisible.
Lex orandi, lex vivendi
“The rule of prayer is the rule of life”
- Mentioned in the context of the lives of the saints being living witness to knowledge of God; “If you want to know God, get to know those whom God identifies with”
Vestigia Trinitatis
The traces that, by his creative act, the Trinity has left of itself in the whole created universe, including all creatures.
- Only discernable by faith
- Includes imago Dei
- Inspires contemplation
- Note also Bonaventure – “The Journey of the Mind into God”: “Concerning the sensible reflection, not only does it happen that God is contemplated through these as through vestiges, but also in these, inasmuch as he is in them through essence, power, and presence” (8).
Deism
A system of natural religion that developed in England in the late 17th-18th centuries
- Belief in a Creator God whose further intervention in his creation was rejected as derogatory to his omnipotence and unchangeableness; the “Watchmaker”
- Castelo includes this as a non-viable alternative to the Creator/creation distinction, along with dualism and determinism (57)
Dualism
1 – A metaphysical system which holds that good and evil are the product of separate and equally ultimate first causes (Castelo 57)
2 – The view that in the Incarnate Christ there were not merely two natures but two persons, a human and Divine.
Providence
God’s continual presence and provision for creation; looking ahead (“pronoia”) but also caring/sustaining in a way that is appropriate to it (“prudencia”) in the present:
- “Anthropic principle”; we live in a universe in which existence is possible (Deism)
- General Providence: God cares for the whole (Ps 147.8-9, just and unjust)
- Particular Providence: God cares for the parts (Mt 10.29-31)
- God’s appropriate guidance from beginning to end; an end for an ordered created being, assuming non-competitive agency.
Non-competitive Agency
Because of the Creator/creator distinction, it is impossible for Creator and created to act in ways that compete or interfere with one another. Both act in ways according to their nature.

This is Barth’s construal of the doctrine of “transcendent agency” – Barth insists on the non-competitive relationship between the divine and human agency in the Christian life – “God does all and the human being does all as well,” in a double agency construal invoking the Chalcedonian two-natures logic. The point: the infinite, qualitative difference between God and humans differentiates divine and human agency (Oxford 296)
Creatio ex nihilo
“Creation out of nothing” (tohu vavohu of Gen. 1; Ro 4.17; intertestamental period and II Maccabees, Shepherd of Hermas)
- God is creator, and creation is not “out of something”
- Creation then, is:
o A divine act (not human)
o Not God (absolute distinction)
o Contingent
o Free (no necessity compelled creation)
o Good (but limited; possibility of growth and thus evil)
Evil
Distinguished from sin, evil is brought into the world by sin; a distortion of being that is the opposite of being, an anti-good and anti-God.
- Evil is real, but does not exist as “something”
- Technically nothing, because God did not create it; everything that exists is, by definition, good – but distinguished from only good or perfect good
- “Evil is the faulty exercise or appropriation of a good thing, namely free will or self-determination… Evil is most appropriately considered the result of agents abusing their God-given freedom to be” (Castelo 63).
Sin
Sin includes “the conditions and practices associated with the faulty use of human self-determination, faulty because such usage would fail to render glory to God” (Castelo 63)
- Has to do with the very structure and corruption of our own being (69).
- Destroys from within as anti-God, anti-creation, and anti-being – “the most unnatural thing there is” (70)
Pantokrator
The word used in the Septuagint to translate “God of hosts,” (Adonai Tzevaot, El-Shaddai)
- “Almighty,” “All-powerful”
- God is powerful in a super-eminent way
Circumincessio
Circuminsessio
Both descriptive of how the Father and Son indwell each other in eternity; not immanent trinity, not the economic Trinity

CircuminCessio:
- denotes movement, dance, approaching each other; dynamic communion
CircuminSessio:
- “being seated in”; one person sitting inside another
Peccatum originale originans
"The originating original sin”
- Adam’s sin
- Distinguished from peccatum originale originatum (the condition of the world into which we are born)
Trinitarian Missions
(Emery)
In Trinitarian doctrine, this term designates the sending of the Son and the Holy Spirit in the economy of grace.

The Trinitarian Missions is part of the two sections of the Catechism of the Catholic Church on the Trinity, which cover the formation of the Trinitarian doctrine, the doctrine itself, the Divine work of the Trinity, and the special missions of the three Persons of the Trinity. According to the Trinitarian Missions section, the divine plan for the redemption of humanity is the common work of the three persons of the Trinity; however, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit do the work according to their unique qualities. This understanding supports the distinction of the three persons, along with their equal participation together.
Economic Trinity
Rahner: the economic Trinity is the immanent Trinity – the God of Scripture, Jesus, and the hidden God that is unseen.
- Connects the revealed God with God as God is
- Certain strands of Christian though assert a distinction (Luther’s Deus absconditus and Deus revelatus), but Rahner holds that this distinction is to suggest that God is not Trinity but other
- God is not Triune through the economy of salvation; this is how we experience God as triune.
- The Economic Trinity, or “Oikonomia”, refers to the works by which God reveals himself and communicated himself, particularly through the incarnation of the Son and the gift of the Holy Spirit (Emery).
Hypostatic union
The substantial, concrete reality that exists through itself according to an individual mode of being
- Hypostasis designates what is really Three in God, that is, the person who subsists in a proper and distinct manner. Hypostasis is connected to a personal property
- Hypostatic union designates what is one in Christ; the union of humanity and divinity in one hypostasis.
o See Gregory of Nyssa, “To Ablabius” – “hypostases does not admit a plural meaning” (150), but “admits distinction … nature is one” (151)
Divine essence
That by which a thing is what it is and is distinguished from other things. The essence of God is his very divinity (which is incomprehensible). The divine essence is one and identical in the three divine persons.
Theosis
The indwelling of the Holy Spirit in the life of the believer, so that we might become God not in nature but by grace
- Filled with divine life to enjoy eternal life in the Trinity
- Central to Wesley’s theology
- II Cor. 6.16, Eph 3.17, Rom 8.11
Concupiscence
The inordinate desire for temporal ends, which has its seat in the senses.
- Catholic theology in general holds concupiscence to be the result of Original sin, rather than a part of it, and regards it as material for the exercise of virtue
- See Augustine, Book 11 Ch.32 of “On the Literal Meaning of Genesis”; links concupiscence specifically with an inordinate sexual drive because of death:
o Bodies now subject to disease and death
o Subject to sexual drives like animals to create offspring to replace oneself after death
Original state
God’s gratuitous impartation to humans of perfect rectitude in the original condition before the Fall. The original state in which humans were created is held to have included freedom from concupiscence, bodily immortality, and happiness
- The world was created good
- Creation was a state of 4-fold harmony with Self, God, Neighbors, and Creation; not simply the result of “nature” but God’s grace
- A harmony that was “fallible,” with the possibility of perfection or disharmony
- “Losing pitch” to God introduces dissonance into everything else; within ourselves, with creation, and with others.
Fallen state
Barth
- Unable to judge correctly
- Perversion of our vision of reality; “false divinization”
- Death as broken Relationality
- Imago Dei no completely lost, but obscured or dimmed
Calvin
- Imago Dei destroyed, “obliterated”
Augustine
- Image is “lost” or bent
Norma normans non normata
“The norming norm that is not normed”
- The standard that is not measured by anything else; namely, Scripture
- “Scripture interprets Scripture”
- Distinguished from Christian tradition, which is normed by Scripture – “norma normans normata”, a norming norm that is normed
- Wesley – “The Theologian must be a man of one book”
Imago Dei
“Image of God”
- Creatures, not creator, but participating in both spirit and matter (Lewis, “amphibians”); creatio ex nihilo
- Image of God = image of the Triune God
- Equal in all human beings
- Indefectible
- Perfectible; distinction between image = original creation and likeness = dynamic living into that image through grace, into glory
Augustine:
- Image = intellect
- Corresponds to the Logos
Calvin:
- Image = mind and heart
- Not human body
Primary and secondary causality
Primary and secondary causality are terms used by Thomas Aquinas to describe the relationship between God and creation. God is the primary cause of all of creation, meaning God does not rely on anything outside God for being, as well as the notion that God did not need to create anything. Creatures are secondary causes insofar as we act and effect change, but we are not self-sufficient; we rely on the primary cause, God, for our being.
Atonement
Atonement is a Christian doctrine describing how human beings can be reconciled to God, specifically through the redemption provided by the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. As a result of the Fall, humanity’s nature has been tainted by sin so that our relationships with God, creation, and one another are distorted. However, humanity can be restored to grace in Christ, which leads to reconciliation between God and creation.