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93 Cards in this Set

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What are the three basic principles of counting for preschoolers?
One-to-one principle

Stable-order principle

Cardinality principle
Basic principle of counting: There must be one and only one number name for each object that is counted
One-to-one principle
Basic principle of counting: Number names must be counted in the same order
Stable-order principle
Basic principle of counting: The last number name differs from the previous ones in a counting sequence by denoting the number of objects
Cardinality principle
This type of memory originates in the preschool years
Autobiographical Memory
During the preschool years, children become better at regulating their
attention
By the time children hit the preschool age, they have learned to do these three things
Tell themselves to pay attention

Block out distracting things

Be able to do tasks systematically
This is the difference between what one can do alone or with assistance
Zone of Proximal Development
This is matching the amount of assistance to the learners needs
Scaffolding
How do you encourage word learning?
Talk more, but WITH not AT children

Ask children questions

Sesame Street helps (because its interactive)
What is the difference between bilingual and monolingual children?
When 1 to 2 year olds, they often progress somewhat slowly at first because they mix words from the two languages. By age 3 to 4, children separate the languages. By elementary school, most are as proficient as monolinguals in both languages.
Bilingual children actually surpass monolinguals in language skills. They also understand that words are simply symbols.
In 2 year olds, speech is often telegraphic, meaning
it consists of only words directly relevant to the meaning
Preschoolers gradually add grammatical morphemes, which are
words or endings of words (ing, ed, s) that make a sentence grammatical
Preschoolers speech is rule-based so errors of overregulation occur, meaning
applying rules to words that are exceptions to the rule (two mans instead of two men)
This is when children rely upon word meaning to discover grammar
Semantic Bootstrapping Hypothesis
These are known to be involved in language processing
Specific regions of the brain
When learning language, there is a
critical period
What is the Biological vs Environmental perspective on how children acquire grammar?
Specific regions of the brain are known to be involved in language processing, and there is evidence for neural mechanisms that help them learn grammar. However, it cannot just be biological, as the environment helps a child detect regularities in speech, and children gradually infer the grammatical rules that provide structure for their language.
By 3 years old, children know this is a key rule
Taking turns
Preschoolers adjust their speech based on
the age of the listener and context
Preschoolers understand that when listeners misunderstand
speakers need to do something
How do preschoolers ask questions?
By raising the inclination of their voice
Preschooler often don't detect ambiguities in messages or assume they understood the speaker's intent, and
they don't ask to clarify
In the US, males are seen as
instrumental
In the US, women are seen as
expressive
This is how college students view male or female characteristics in a survey
Male: Independent, Aggressive, Outspoken, Ambitious, Dominant

Female: Emotional, Kind, Creative, Considerate, Gentle, Excitable
These three things reinforce gender-related behavior
Parents (particularly dads)

Peers

Media
These are the three steps to developing gender identity
Gender labeling

Stability

Consistency
This is the perception of oneself as either male or female
Gender identity
Gender Identity: By age 2 or 3, children understand that they are either boys or girls and label themselves accordingly
Gender labeling
Gender Identity: During the preschool years, children begin to understand that gender is stable (boys become men and girls become women)
Gender stability
Gender Identity: Between 4 and 7 years, most children understand that maleness and femaleness do not change over situations or according to personal wishes
Gender consistency
Identical twins are similar in characteristics of
gender
Females are exposed to high levels of
male hormones
Girls interactions with one another are typically this, meaning their actions and remarks tend to support others and sustain the interaction
Enabling
Boy's interactions are often this, where one partner tries to emerge as the victor by threatening or contradicting the other, by exaggerating, and so on
Constricting
When looking at gender identity, there is some evidence for
genetic and hormonal influences
The preschool years are often high levels of
self-esteem
When looking at the styles of parenting, what is the difference between Western and Eastern cultures, and why?
Western cultures are more Authoritative

Eastern cultures are more Authoritarian

Western cultures try to promote more individuality and freedom, whereas Eastern cultures try to promote control and cooperation and collaboration
These are the two primary dimensions in raising a child
Warmth and Control
Parenting style: parenting combines high control with little warmth
Authoritarian
Parenting style: parenting combines a fair degree of parental control with being warm and responsive to children
Authoritative
Parenting style: parenting offers warmth and caring but little parental control
Indulgent-permissive
Parenting style: parenting provides neither warmth nor control
Indifferent-uninvolved
Observational learning can produce this, in which the preschooler learns what should not be done
Counter imitation
This is when children learn from watching others, including parents and their treatment of siblings
Observing
Parents often unwittingly reinforce the very behaviors they want to discourage, a situation called the
negative reinforcement trap
When looking at sibling relationships, firstborns tend to be more
adult and achievement-oriented
When looking at sibling relationships, laterborns tend to be more
innovative and sociable
Sibling get along best when these five things happen
They are the same sex

Neither is emotional

Younger enters adolescence

Parent's don't show favoritism

Parents have a warm relationship with one another
How do sibling relationships affect relationships and personality
It is the internal working model for all future social relationships
Self-control is more likely when parents
have control themselves
Giving children more opportunities to regulate their own behavior fosters
self-control
Some short children may receive growth hormones, but this has negative effects, including
not making children taller when adults, being more prone to infections, and how being short may not be attributed to adjustment problems
What are some genetic and environmental causes of obesity?
Genetic: weight is related to biological parents, genes influence activity level, and may develop a slow metabolic rate

Environmental: advertising, parents influencing external eating habits (eat when forced)
What are the risk factors of overweight children?
Low self-esteem and medical problems
Motor Skills: Girls excel at
fine-motor skills and gross-motor skills that require balance and flexibility
Motor Skills: Boys are better at
strength
When looking at motor skills, many gender differences are due to
attitudes about girls' sports participation
These are the only dimensions in the reasons for sports participation survey where boys and girls differed
Social status and popularity

Deception and Superiority

Competitiveness
How can parents help childhood accidents?
By being good role models (seat belts and bike helmets) and by being realistic about a child's abilities
Children with these have normal intelligence, but have difficulty mastering academic material, and is not suffering from other conditions that could explain poor performance
Learning disabilities
Children with ADHD show a combination of
Overactivity, inattention, and impulsivity
When looking at ADHD, what is the difference in looking at Genetics vs. Environment?
Genetics: Identical twins more often both have ADHD than fraternal, predisposition for the disorder

Environmental: Children with ADHD often come from families with parents in conflict or under great stress themselves, which can be a trigger to the predisposition
Some cases of mental retardation, no more than 25 percent, can be traced to a specific biological or physical problem and are known as
organic mental retardation
In most cases of mental retardation, this represents the lower end of the normal distribution of intelligence
Familial mental retardation
How many children with mental retardation are mildly or educably retarded?
90%
When looking at IQ scores, what score counts as being mentally retarded?
70 or below
Profoundly or severely retarded individuals can be taught
self-help skills such as dressing, feeding, and toileting
Moderately retarded individuals can be taught
simple tasks and can sometimes support themselves
Mildly or educably retarded individuals can be taught
academic skills at an older age than a non-retarded child, and may lead independent lives
These are strategies and rules that make thinking more systematic and more powerful (logical, mathematical, spatial operations)
Mental operations
During the Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years), the focus is on
the real, not the abstract
In the Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years), operations can be reversed, which allow children to do
Controvation problems (5 + 3 = 8, thus 8 - 3 = 5)
This is a memory structure used to describe the sequence in which events occur (network of knowledge)
Script
Successful learning involves
identifying goals and choosing strategies
Knowledge helps
organize memory, but can distort recall
Scripts help aid
recall, but can distort memory
What are the four memory strategies, in which the focus is on the unlearned material?
Determine Goal

Select strategy

Use strategy

Monitor strategy
In the effects of knowledge on memory, if you experience something, it will
help you remember it better
According to the Psychometric theories, intelligence is
how well we do on tests
This theory proposed 7 intelligences (linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal), looking at child development, brain-damaged adults, and exceptional talent
Gardner's Theory on Multiple Intelligences
This theory proposed intelligence includes 3 parts or sub-theories, and looks at the way you do things
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory: intelligence involves skillful adaptation to a specific environment
Contextual sub-theory
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory: on novel tasks, intelligence is shown by readily applying pertinent knowledge; on familiar tasks, by solving them automatically
Experiential sub-theory
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory: any intelligent act that consists of cognitive components
Componential sub-theory
This is the IQ of a person, which is simply the ratio of mental age to chronological age, multiplied by
100
The average IQ is
100
The IQ test is the first objective test, which is used to identify
children who need special help
This is referred to the difficulty of the problems that children could solve correctly
Mental age
Are IQ tests reliable?
In the short term, yes

In the long term, no
Are IQ tests valid?
Yes, as long as validity is defined as success in school
What are the Hereditary and Environmental factors of a child's intellectual development?
Hereditary: Genes influence intelligence, developmental change in IQ are more alike in identical twins than fraternal, IQ scores are correlated with biological parent's IQ scores

Environmental: Higher test scores in environments that are stimulating, responsive, and involved, children who grow up in poverty tend to have lower IQ scores