Child Psy Final

Front 1

behavior modification

Back 1

procedures that combine and modeling to eliminate undesirable behaviors and increase desirable responses.

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behaviorism

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An approach that regards directly observable events - stimuli and responses - as the appropriate focus of study and views the development of behavior as taking place through classical and operant conditioning

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child development

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a field of study devoted to the understanding of constancy and change from conception through adolescence and emerging adulthood

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chronosystem

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in ecological systems theory, temporal changes in children's environments, which produce new conditions that affect development. These changes arise from within the child.

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clinical interview

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A method in which the researcher uses a flexible, conversational style to probe for the participant's point of view.

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clinical/case study method

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a method in which the researcher attempts to understand the unique individual child by combining interview data, oberservations, test scores, and sometimes psychophysiological measures.

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cognitive-development theory

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an approach introduced by Piaget that veiws children as actively constructing knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world, and views cognitive development as taking places in stages.

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cohort effects

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the effects of cultural-historical change on the accuracy of longitudinal and cross sectional findings. Children born at the same time are influenced by particular cultural and historical conditions. results based on one cohort may not apply to children developing and different times

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contexts

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unique combinations of genetic and environmental circumstances that can result in markedly different paths of development

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continuous development

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a view that regards development as gruadually argumenting the same types of skills that were there to begin with.

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correlation coeficient

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a number, ranging from +1 ro -1 that describes the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables

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correlational design

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a research design in which the researcher gathers information without altering participants experiences and examines the relationships between variables. Does not permit inferences about cause and effect.

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cross-section design

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a research study in which groups of people differing in age are studied at the same point in time.

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dependent variable

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the variable the researcher expects to be affected by the independent variable in the experiment

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discontinuous development

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a view in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times.

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dynamic system perspective

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a view that regards the child's mind, body, and physical and social worlds as a dynamic, integrated system. A change in any part of the system leads the child to reorganize his or her behavior so the various components of the system work together lead the child to reorganize his or her behavior so the various components of the system work together again but in a more complex and effective way

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ecological systems theory

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bronfenbrenner's approach, which views the child as developing within a complex systems of relationships affected by multiple levels of the environment, from immediate settings of family and school to broad cultural values and programs

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ethnography

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a method in which the researcher attempts to understand the unique values and social processes of a culture or a distinct social group by living with its members and taking field notes for an extended period of time

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ethology

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an approach concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and it's evolutionary history

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evolutionary developmental psychology

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an approach that seeks to understand the adaptive value of species-wide cognitive, emotional and social competencies as those competencies change with age

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exosystem

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in ecological systems theory, settings that do not contain children but that affect their experiences in immediate settings. Examples include parents workplaces, heath and welfare services in the community, and parent's social networks

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experimental design

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a research design in which the invesigator randomly assigns participants to two or more treatment conditions. Permits inferences about cause and effect.

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independent variable

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the variable the researcher expects to cause changes in another variable in an experiment

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information processing

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an approach that views the human mind as a symbol manipulating system through which information flows and regards cognitive development as a continuous process

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longitudinal design

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a research design in which participamts are studied repeatedly at different ages.

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longitudinal-sequential design

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a research design with both longitudinal and cross-sectional components in which groups of participants born in different years are followed over time.

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macrosystem

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in ecological systems, cultural values, laws, customs, and resources that influence experiences and interactions at inner levels of the environment

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mesosystem

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in ecological systems theory, connections between childrens immediate settings

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microgenetic design

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a research design in which researchers present children with a novel task and follow their mastery over a series of closely spaces sessions

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maturation

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a genetically determined naturally unfolding course of growth

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microsystem

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in ecological systems theory, the activities and interaction patterns in the childs immediate surroundings

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naturalistic obervation

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a method in which the researcher goes into the natual environment to observe the behavior of interest

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nature-nurture controversy

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debate among theorists about whether genetic or environmental factors are more important determinants of development and behavior

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noble savage

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rousseau's view of the child as natually endowed with a sense of right and wrong and an innate plan for orderly, healthy growth

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normative approach

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an approach in which measures of behavior are taken on large numbers of individuas and age-related averages are computed to resent typical development

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psychoanalytic perspective

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an approach to personality development in which freud assumes that children move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. The way these conficts are resolved determines the persons ability to learn, to get along with others and to cope with anxiety

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psychological methods

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methods that measure the relationship between physiological processes and behavior. Among the most common are measures of autonomic nervous systemn activity (such as heart rate and respiration) and brain functioning (EEG and fMRI)

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psychosexual theory

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Freud's theory which emphasizes that how parents manage children's sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years of life is crucial for healthy personality development

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psychosocial theory

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erikson's theory which emphasizes that at each freudian stage, individuals not only develop a unique personality but also acquire attidtudes and skills that help them become active contributing members of their society

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random assignment

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an unbiased procedure for assigning participant to treatment groups, such as drawing numbers out of a hat, flipping a coin . Increases chance of having that participants characteristics equally distributed across treatment conditions in an experimemnt

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resilience

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the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development

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sensitive period

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a time that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge and in which the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences. Development can occur later, but it is harder to induce.

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social learning theory

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a theory that emphasizes the role of modeling, or obersevational learning, in the development of behavior. its most recent revision stresses the importance of thinking in social learning and is called social-cognitive theory

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sociocultural theory

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vygotsky's theory in which children are assumed to acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a communities culture through cooperative dialogues with more knowlegable members of society

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stage

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a qualitative change in thinking, feeli9ng, and behaving that characterizes a specific period of development

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structured interview

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a method in which each participant is asked the same questions in the same way

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structured observation

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a method in which the investigator sets up a situation that evokes the behavior of interest and observes it in a laboratory.

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tabula rasa

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locke's view of child as a "blank slate" whose character is shaped by experience

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theory

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an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains and predicts behavior

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behavioral genetics

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a field devoted to uncovering the contributions of nature and nurture to the diversity in humans traits and abilities

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canalization

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the tendency of hereditary to restrict the development of some characteristics to just one or a few outcomes

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collectivist societys

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societies in which people define themselves as part of a group and stress group over individuals goals.

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concordance rate

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the percentage of instances in which both members of a twin pair show a trait when it is present in one pair member. used to study the contribution of hereditary to emotional and behavioral disorders that can be judged as either present or absent

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epigenesis

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development of te individual resulting from ongoing, bidirectional exchanges between hereditary and all levels of the environment

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extended family household

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a household in which parent and child live with one or more adult relatives

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genetic-environmental correlation

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the idea that hereditary influences the environments to which individuals are exposed

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heritability estimate

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a statistic that measures the extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific population are due to genetic factors

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individualitic societys

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societies in which people think of themselves as seperate entities and are largely concerned with their own personal needs

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kinship studies

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studies comparing the characteristics of family members to determine the important of hereditary in complex human characteristics

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niche-picking

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a type of genetic-environmental correlation in which individuals actively chose environments that compliment their heredity

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public policies

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laws and government programs designed to improve current conditions

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range of reaction

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each persons unique, genetically determined response to range of environmental conditions

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socioeconomic status

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a measure of a families social position and economic well being that combines three interrelated, but not completely overlapping, variables: (1) years of education and (2) the prestige of and skill required by one's job, both of which measured economic status, and (3) income, which measures economic status

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subculture

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a group of people with beliefs and customs that differ from those of the larger culture

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acquired immune deficiency syndrome

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a viral infection that destroys the immune system and is spread through transfer of body fluids from one person to another. it can be transmitted prenatally.

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age of viability

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the age at which the fetus can fetus can first survive if born early. orrcurs sometime 22 and 26 weeks.

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amnion

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the inner membrane that forms a protective covering around the prenatal organism

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blastocyst

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the zygote 4 days after fertilization, when the tiny mass of cells forms a hollow, fluid filled ball

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chorion

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the outer membrane that forms a protective covering around the prenatal organism. It sends out tiny, fingerlike villi, fro, which the placenta begins to develop

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embryo

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the prenatal organism from 2 to 8 weeks after conception, during which time the foundations of all body structures are internal organs are laid down

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embryonic disk

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a small cluster of cells on the inside of the blastocyst, from which the new organism will develop

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fetal alcohol effects (FAE)

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the condition of children who display some but not all defects of fetal alcohol syndrome. usually their mothers drank during pregnancy just in smaller quantities

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fetal alcohol syndom (FAS)

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a set of defects that results when women consume large amounts of alcohol during their pregnancy. inclued mental retardation, slow physical growth, and facial abnormalities

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fetus

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the prenatal organism from the the third month to the end of the pregnancy, during which time completion of body structures and dramatic growth in size take place

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implantation

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attachment of the blastocyst to the uterine lining 7 to 9 days after fertilization

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lanugo

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a white, downy hair that covers the entire body of the fetus, helping the vernix to stick to the skin

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neural tube

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the primitive spinal cord that develops from the ectoderm, the top of which swells to form the brain during the period of the embryo

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placenta

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the organ that seperates the mothers bloodstream from the embryos or fetal bloodstream but permits exchange of nutrients and waste products

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RH factor incompatibility

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a condition that arises when the RH protein, present in the fetus' blood but not in the mothers, causes the mother to build up a antibodies. If these return to the fetus' system, the destroyed red blood cells, reducing the oxygen supply and to organs and tissues

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rubella

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three day german measles. cause a wide variety of prenatal abnormalities, especially whenh it strikes during the embryonic period

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teratogen

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any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period

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thalidomide

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a sedative widely available in europe, canada and south america in the 1960's. when taken by women between 4th and 6th weeks after conception, produced gross deformities of the embryos arms and legs

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toxemia

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all illness of the last half of pregnancy, in which the mothers blood pressure increases sharply and her hands, face and feet swell. If untreated it can cause convulsions in the mother and death of the fetus

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toxoplasmosis

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a paraitic disease caused by eating raw or undercooked meat or by coming in contact with infected cats feces. During the 1st trimester it can lead to eye and brain damage

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trimesters

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three equal time periods in pre-natal development, each one lasting 3 months

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thropoblast

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the thin outer ring of cells of the lastocyst, which will become the structures that provide protective covering and nourishment to the new organism

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umbilical cord

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the long cord connecting the prenatal organism to the placenta, it delivers nutrients and removes waste

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vernix

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a white, cheese-like substance that covers the fetus and prevents skin from chapping due to constant exposure to amniotic fluid

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bonding

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parents feelings of affection and concern for the newborn baby

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neonatal behavioral assessment scale (NBAS)

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a test developed to assess the behavior of an infant during the newborn period

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non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep

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a "regular" sleep state in which the body is quiet and heart rate, breathing, brain wave activity are slow and regular.

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postpartum depression

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feelings of sadness and withdrawal that appear shortly after childbirth and that continue for weeks or months

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rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep

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An "irregular" sleep state in which brain-wave activity is similar to that of the waking state. eyes dart beneath the lids; heart rate, blood pressure and breathing are all uneven, and slight body movements occur.

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reflex

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an inborn, automatic response to a particular form of stimulation

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rooming in

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an arrangement in which the newborn baby stays in the mothers hospital room all or most of the time

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sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

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the unexpected death, usually during the night, of an infant younger than 1 year of age that remains unexplained after thorough explanation

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visual acuity

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fineness of visual discrimination

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affordances

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the action possibilities that a situation offers an organism with certian motor capabilities. Discovering affordances plays a major role in perceptual differentiation

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brain plasticity

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the ability of other parts of the brain to take over functions of damaged regions. Declines as hemispheres of the cerebral cortex lateralize.

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cephalocaudal trend

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An organized pattern of physical growth and motor control that procceds from head to tail

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cerebral cortex

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the largest, most complex structure of the human brain, and the one responsible for the highly developed intelligence of the human species. Surrounds the rest of the brain, much like a half-shelled walnut.

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classical conditioning

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a form of learning that involving associating a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that leads to a reflexive response

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conditioned response

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in classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus that, through pairing with an unconditional stimulus (UCS), leads to a new response (CR)

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conditioned stimulus

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in classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus that, through pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), leads to a new response (CR).

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contrast sensitivity

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a general principle accounting for early pattern preferences, which states that if babies can detect a difference in contrast between two or more patterns, they will prefer the one with more contrast

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differentiation theory

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the view that perceptual development involves the detection of increasingly fine grained, invariant features in the environment

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dynamic systems theory of motor development

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a theory that views new motor skills as reorganizations of previously mastered skills that lead to more effective ways of exploring and controlling the environment

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epiphyses

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growth centers in the bones where new cartilidge cells are produced and gradually harden

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experience-dependent brain growth

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new growth and refinement of brain structures as a result of specific learning experiences that vary widely across inividuals and cultures. Follows experience-expectant brain growth

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experience-expectant brain growth

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the young brains rapidly developing organgaization, which depends on ordinary experiences - opportunities to see and touch objects, to hear language and other sounds, and to move about and explore the environment. Provides the foundation for experience-dependent brain growth

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fontanels

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six soft spots that seperate the bones of the skull at birth

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glial cells

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cells that are responsible for myliniation

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habituation

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a gradual reduction in the strength of a response due to repetative stimulus

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imitation

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learning by copying the behavior of another person. Also called modeling or observational learning

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intermodal perception

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perception that combines stimululation from more than one sensory system at a time

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invariant features

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in differentiation theory of perceptual development, features that remain stable in a constantly changing perceptual world.

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kwashiorkor

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a disease that is caused by a diet low in protein and that usually appears after weaning, between 1 and 3 years of age. Symptoms include an enlarged belly, swollen feet, hair loss, skin rash, and irritable, listless behavior

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lateralization

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specialization of functions in the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex

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marasmus

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a disease usually appearing in the first year of life that is caused by a diet low in all essential nutrients. Leads to a wasted body condition

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myelination

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a process in which neural fibers are coated with an insulating fatty sheath (called myelin) that improves the efficiency of message transfer

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neurons

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nerve cells that store and transmit information

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nonorganic failure to thrive

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a growth disorder usually present by 18 months of age that is caused by lack of affection and stimulation

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operant conditioning

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a form of learning in which a spontaneous behavior is followed by a stimulus that changes the probability that the behavior occured.

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pincer grasp

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the well coordinated grasp emerging at the end of the first year, involving thumb and finger opposition

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prereaching

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the poorly coordinated, primitive reaching movements of newborn babies

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proximodistal trend

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an organization pattern of physical growth and motor control that proceeds from the center of the body outward

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punishment

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in operant condition, a stimulus (removal of a desirable one or presentation of an un-pleasant one) that decreases the occurrence of a response

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recovery

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following habituation, an increase in responsiveness to a new stimulus

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reinforcer

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in operant conditioning, a stimulus that increases the occurence of a response

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shape constancy

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perception of an objects size as the same, despite changes in the size of its retinal image

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size constancy

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perception of an objects size as the same, despite changes in the size of its retinal image

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skeletal age

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an estimate of physical maturity based on development of the bones of the body

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synapses

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the gap between neurons, acorss which chemical messages are sent

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synaptic pruning

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loss of connective fibers by seldom stimulated neurons, thereby returning them to an un-committed state so they can support the development of future skills

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ulnar grasp

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the clumsy grasp of the young infant, in which the fingers close against the palm

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unconditioned response

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in classical conditioning, a reflexive response that is produced by an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

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unconditioned stimulus

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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that leads to a reflexive response

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A not B search error

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the error made by 8-12 months old after an object is moved from hiding place A, to hiding place B. Infants in Piaget's substage 4 search for it only in the first hiding place

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accommodation

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that part of adaption in which new schemes are created and old ones adjusted to produce a better fit with the environment

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adaption

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in piaget's theory, the process of building schemes through direct interaction with the environment. Made up of two processes, assimilation and accomodation

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assimilation

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that part of adaption in which the external world is interpreted in terms of current schemes

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autobiographical memory

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representations of special, one time events that are long lasting because the are imbued with personal meaning

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babbling

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repeating of consonant-vowel combinations in long strings, beginning around 4 months of age

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broca's area

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a language structure located in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere of the cerebreal cortex that controls language and production

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central executive

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in information processing, the conscious part of working memory that directs the flow of information through the mental system by deciding what to attend to, coordinating incoming information with information already in the system, and selecting, applying, and monitoring stages

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child-directed speech

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a form of language adults use to speak to young children that consists of short senstences with high pitched, exaggerated expression, clear pronunciation, distinct pauses between speech segments, and repetition of new words in a variety of contexts

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circular reaction

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in piaget's theory, a means of building schemes in which infants try to repeat a chance event caused by their own motor activity

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comprehension

Back 148

in language development, the words and word combinations that children understand

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cooing

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pleasant vowel-like noises made by infants, beginning around 2 months of age

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core knowledge perspective

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a perspective that states tht infants are born with a set of innate knowledge systems, or core domains of thought, each of which permits a ready grasp of new, related information and therefor supports early, rapid development of certian aspects of development

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deferred imitation

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the ability to remember and copy the behavior of models who are not present

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developmental quotient or DQ

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a score on an infant intelligence test, based primarily on perceptual and motor responses. computed in the same manor as an IQ

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developmentally appropriate practice

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standards devised by the National association for the education of young children that specify program characteristics that meet the developmental and individual needs of young children of varying ages, based on both current research and the reseach and consenus of experts

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expressive style

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a style of early language learning in which toddlers use language mainly to talk about the feelings and needs of themselves and other people. Initial vocabulary emphasizes social formulas and pronouns

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functional play

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a type of play involving pleasurable motor activity with or without objects. enables infants and toddlers to practice sensorimotor schemes

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home observation for measurement of the environment (HOME)

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a checklist for gathering information about the quality of childrens home lives through observation and parental interview

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intelligent quotient or IQ

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a score that reflects an individuals performance on an intelligence test compared with the performances of other individuals of the same age

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intentional, goal directed behavior

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a sequence of actions in which schemes are deliberatly combined to solve a problem

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joint attention

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a state in which the child and the cargiver attent to the same object or event and the caregiver offers verbal information. Supports language development

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language acquisition device (LAD)

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in chomsky's theory, a biologcally based innate system for picking up language that permits children, no matter which language they hear, to speak in a rule oriented fashion as soon as they have learned enough words

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long-term memory

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in information processing, the part of the mental system that contains our permanent knowledge base

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make-believe play

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a type of play in which children pretend, acting out everyday imaginary activities

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mental representation

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internal depictions of information that the mind can manipulate

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mental strategies

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in information processing, procedures that operate on and transform information, thereby increasing the efficiency and flexibility of thinking and the chances that information will be retained

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object permanence

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the understanding that objects continue to exist when they are out of sight

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organization

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in piaget's theory, the internal rearrangement and linking together of schemes so that they form a strongly interconnected cognitive system. In information processing, the memory strategy of grouping related terms

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overextension

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an early vocabulary error in which a word is applied too broadly - that is, to a wider collection fo objects and events than is appropriate.

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production

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in language development, the words and words combinations that children use.

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recall

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the type of memory that involves remembering something in the absense of perceptual support

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recognition

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the simplest form of memory, which involves noticing whether a new experience is identical or similar to a previous one

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referential style

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a style of early language learning in which toddlers use language mainly to label objects.

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scheme

Back 172

in piaget's theory, a specific structure, or organized way of making sense of experience, that changes with age

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sensorimotor stage

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piaget's first stage, during which toddlers "think" with their hands, eyes, ears and other sensorimotor equipment. SPans the first 2 years of life

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sensory register

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in information processing, that part of the mental system in which sights and sounds are represented directly and stored briefly before they decay or are transferred to working or short term memory

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telegraphic speech

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toddlers two word utterances that, like a telegram, leave out smaller and less important words

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underextension

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an early vocabulary error in which a rold is applied too narrowly, to a smaller number of objects and events than is appropriate

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violation of expectation method

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a method in which researchers habituate infants to a physical event and then determine whether they recover responsiveness to (look longer at) a possible event (a variation of the first event that conforms to physical laws) or an impossible event (a variation that violates physical laws). Recovery to the impossible event suggests awareness of that aspect of physical reality.

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wernicke's area

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a language structure located in the temporal lobe of the left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex that is responsible for interpreting language

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working, or short term memory

Back 179

in information processing, the part of the mental system where we actively "work" on a limited amount of information, applying mental strategies to ensure that it will be retained

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zone of proximal development

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in vygotsky's theory, a range of tasks that the child cannot yet handle alone but can accomplish with the help of more skilled partners

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attachment

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the strong, affectional tie that humans feel toward special people in their lives

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attachment q-sort

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an efficient method for asssesing the quality of the attachment bond, in which

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autonomy vs shame and doubt

Back 183

in eriksons theory, the psychological conflict of toddlerhood, which is resolved positively if parents provide young children with suitable guidance and reasonable choices

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avoidant attachment

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the quality of insecure attachment characterizing infants who usually are not distressed by parental seperation and who avoid the parent when she returns.

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basic emotions

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emotions that can be directly inferred from facial expressions, such as happiness, interest, suprise, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust.

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basic trust vs mistrust

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in eriksons theory, the psychological conflict of infancy, which is resolved positively if caregiving, especially during feeding, is sympathetic and loving

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compliance

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voluntary obedience to adult requests and commands

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difficult child

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a child whose temperament is characterized by irregular daily routines, slow acceptance of new experiences, and negative and intense reactions.

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disorganized/disoriented attachment

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the quality of insecure attachment characteristizing infants who respond in a confused, contradictory fashion when reunited with the parent.

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easy child

Back 190

a child whose temperament is characterized by establishment of regular routines in infancy, general cheerfulness, and easy adaption to new experiences

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emotional self regulation

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stategies for adjusting our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals

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empathy

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the abilit to understand anothers emotional state and feel with that person, or respond emotionally in a similar way

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ethological theory of attachment

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a theory, formulated by bowlby, that views the infants emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promoted survival

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goodness of fit model

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thomas and chess's model, which states that an effective match, or "good fit", between child rearing and a childs temperament leads to more adaptive functioning, whereas a "poor fit" results in adjustment problems

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inhibited, or shy child

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a child whose temperament is characterized by negative reaction to and withdrawal from novel stimuli. resembles slow to warm up child.

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interactional synchrony

Back 196

a sensitively tuned "emotional dance" in which the caregiver responds to infant signals in a well time, rhythmic, appropriate fashion and both partners match emtotional states, especially the positive ones

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internal working model

Back 197

a set of expectations derived from early caregiving experiences concerning the availability of attachment figures, their likelihood of providing support during times of stress, and the self's interaction with those figures. Becomes a model, or guide, for all future close relationships

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i-self

Back 198

a sense of self as agent, who is separate from the surrounding world and can control its own thoughts and actions.

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me-self

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a sense of self as an object of knowledge and evalutation. consists of all qualities that make the self unique, including physical characteristics, possesions, attitudes, beliefs, and personality traits

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resistant attachment

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the quality of insecure attachment characterizeding infants who remain close to the parent before departure, are usually distressed when she leaves, and mix clinginess with angry, resistive behavior when she returns.

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secure attachment

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the quality of attachment characterizing infants who are distressed by parental separation but are easily comforted by the parent when she returns

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secure base

Back 202

the infants use of the familiar caregiver as a point from which to explore the environment and to return to for emotional support

Front 203

self conscious emotions

Back 203

emotions that involve injury to or enhancement of the sense of self. ex shame, guilt, envy, pride.

Front 204

self control

Back 204

the capacity to resist am impulse to engage in socially disapproved behavior

Front 205

sensitive caregiving

Back 205

caregiving involving prompt, consistent, and appropraite responding to infant signals

Front 206

seperation anxiety

Back 206

an infant's distressed reaction to the departure of the familiar caregiver

Front 207

slow to warm up child

Back 207

a child whose temperament is characterized by inactivity, mild, low key reactions to environmental stimuli, negative mood, and slow adjustment when faced with new experiences

Front 208

social referencing

Back 208

relying on a trusted persons emotional reaction to decide how to respond in an uncertain situation

Front 209

social smile

Back 209

the smile evoked by the stimulus of the human face. first appears between 6 and 10 weeks

Front 210

strange situation

Back 210

a procedure that takes the baby through 8 short episodes, in which brief seperations from, and reunions with the caregiver occur in an unfamiliar playroom. asseses quality of attachment bond

Front 211

stranger anxiety

Back 211

the infants expresssion of fear in response to unfamiliar adults. appears in many babies after 6 months of age

Front 212

temperament

Back 212

stable individual differences in the quality and intensity of emotional reaction, activity level, attention, and emotional self regulation

Front 213

uninhibited, or sociable child

Back 213

a child whose temperament is characterized by positive emotional reaction and approach to novel stimuli.

Front 214

cerebellum

Back 214

a brain structure that aids in balance and control of body movement

Front 215

corpus callosum

Back 215

the large bundle of fibers that connects the two hemispeheres of the brain

Front 216

dominant cerebral hemisphere

Back 216

the hemisphere of the brain responsible for skilled motor action. The left hemisphere is dominant in right handed individuals. In left handed individuals, the right hemisphere may be dominant, or motor and language skills may be shared between the hemispheres

Front 217

general growth curve

Back 217

a curve that represents overall changes in body size - rapid growth during infancy, slower gains in early and middle childhood, and rapid growth during adolescence

Front 218

growth hormone

Back 218

a pituitary hormone that affects the development of all body tissues except the central nervous system and the genitals

Front 219

pituitary gland

Back 219

a gland located near the base of the brain that releases hormones affecting physical growth

Front 220

psychosocial dwarfism

Back 220

a growth disorder observed between 2 and 15 years of age. Characterized by very short stature, decreased GH secretion, immature skeletal age, and serious adjustment problems, which help distinguish psychosocial dwarfism from normal shortness. Caused by emotional deprevation.

Front 221

reticular formation

Back 221

a brain structure that maintains alertness and consciousness

Front 222

thyroid-stimulating hormone

Back 222

a pituitary hormone that simulates the thyroid gland to release thyroxine, which is necessary for normal brain development and body growth.

Front 223

aboriginal head start

Back 223

a canadian federal program that provides first nations, inuit, and metis children younger than age 6 with preschool education and nutritional and health services and that encourages parent involvement in program planning and childrens learning

Front 224

academic programs

Back 224

educational programs in which teachers structure young childrens learning, teaching letters, numbers, colors, shapes, and other academic skills through formal lessons, often using repetition and drill.

Front 225

animistic thinking

Back 225

the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities such as thoughts, wishes, feelings and intentions

Front 226

cardinality

Back 226

a principle stating that the last number in a counting sequence indicates the quantity of items in the set

Front 227

centration

Back 227

the tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect other important feautres

Front 228

child-centered programs

Back 228

educational programs in which teachers provide activities from which young children select, and most of the day is devoted to play.

Front 229

conservation

Back 229

the understanding that certain characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes.

Front 230

dual representation

Back 230

viewing a symbolic object as both an object in its own right and a symbol

Front 231

egocentrism

Back 231

the inability to distinguish the symbolic viewpoints of others from ones own

Front 232

emergent literacy

Back 232

young children's active efforts to contruct literacy knowledge through informal experiences

Front 233

episodic memory

Back 233

memory for everday experiences

Front 234

expansions

Back 234

Adult responses that elaborate on a child's utterance, increasing its complexity

Front 235

fast mapping

Back 235

connecting a new word with an underlying concept after only a brief encounter

Front 236

guided participation

Back 236

a concept that calls attention to adult and child contributions to a cooperative dialogue without specifying the precise features of communication, thereby allowing for variations across situations and cultures

Front 237

heirarchical classification

Back 237

the organization of objects into classes and subclasses on the basis of similarities and differences

Front 238

intersubjectivity

Back 238

the process whereby two participants who begin a task with different understandings arrive at a shared understanding

Front 239

irreversability

Back 239

the inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem and then reverse direction, returning to the starting point.

Front 240

mental strategies

Back 240

in information processing, procedures that operate on and transform information, thereby increasing the efficiacy and flexibility of thinking and the chances information will be maintained

Front 241

metacognition

Back 241

thinking about thought; awareness of mental activities

Front 242

mutual exclusivity bias

Back 242

in the early phase of vocabulary growth, childrens assumptions that words refer entirely seperate (non overlapping) categories

Front 243

operations

Back 243

mental representations of actions that obey logical rules

Front 244

ordinality

Back 244

a principle specifying order (more-than and less-than) relationships between quantities

Front 245

overlapping-waves theory

Back 245

a theory of problem solving, which states that when given challenging problems, children generate a variety of stategies and gradually selec those that result rapid, accurate situations, yielding an overlapping-waves pattern of development

Front 246

overregularization

Back 246

application of regular grammatical rules to words that are exceptions

Front 247

phonological awareness

Back 247

the ability to reflect on and manipulate the sound structure of spoken language, as indicated by sensitivity to changes in sounds within words, to rhyming, and to incorrect pronunciation. A strong predictor of emergent literacy during early childhood and of later reading and spelling achievement.

Front 248

planning

Back 248

thinking out a sequence of acts ahead of time aand allocating attention accordingly to reach a goal

Front 249

pragmatics

Back 249

the practical, social side of language that is concerned with how to engage in effective and appropriate communication with others

Front 250

preoperational stage

Back 250

piaget's second stage, in which rapid growth representation takes place but thought is not yet logical. extends from 2 to 7 years

Front 251

private speech

Back 251

self-directed speech that children use to plan and guide their own behavior

Front 252

project head start

Back 252

the largest federally funded program in the united states, which provides low income children with a year or two of preschool education, along with nutritional and medical services, and which encourages parent involvement in childrens development

Front 253

recasts

Back 253

adult responses that restructures children's incorrect sppech into a more appropriate form

Front 254

scaffolding

Back 254

a changing quality of social support over the course of a teaching session, in which the adult adjusts the assistant provided to fit the child's current level of performance. As competence increases, the adult gradually and sensitively withdraws support, turning over responsibility to the child

Front 255

scripts

Back 255

general descriptions of what occurs and when it occurs in a particular situation. A basic means through which children organize and inerpret repeated events

Front 256

semantic bootstrapping

Back 256

figuring out grammatical rules by relying on word meanings

Front 257

sociodramatic play

Back 257

the make believe play with others that is under way by age 2.5

Front 258

syntactic bootstrapping

Back 258

figuring out word meanings by observing how words are used in the structure of sentences

Front 259

androgyny

Back 259

a type of gender identity in which the person scores high on both traditionally feminine personality characteristics

Front 260

associative play

Back 260

a form of true social participation, in which children are engaged in separate activities but interact by exchanging toys and commenting on one anothers behavior.

Front 261

authoritarian child rearing style

Back 261

a child rearing style that is low in acceptance and involvement, is high in coercive control, and restricts rather than grants autonomy

Front 262

authoritative child rearing style

Back 262

a child rearing style that is high in acceptance and involvement, emphasizes firm control with explanations, and includes gradual, appropriate autonomy granting

Front 263

child-rearing styles

Back 263

combinations of parenting behaviors that occur over a wide range of situations, creating an enduirng child rearing climate.

Front 264

cooperative play

Back 264

a form of true social participation, in which children orient toward a common goal, such as acting out a make-believe theme or working on the same project.

Front 265

gender constancy

Back 265

the understanding that sex remains the same even if clothing, hairstyle and play activities change

Front 266

gender identity

Back 266

an image of oneself as relatively masculine or feminine in characteristics

Front 267

gender schema theory

Back 267

an information processing approach to gender typing that combines social learning and cognitive developmental features to explain how environmental pressures and children's cognitions together shape gender-role development

Front 268

gender typing

Back 268

the process of developing gender roles, or gender-linked preferences and behaviors valued by the larger society

Front 269

hostile agression

Back 269

aggression intended to harm another person

Front 270

induction

Back 270

a type of discipline in which the effects of the childs misbehavior on others are communicated to the child

Front 271

initiative vs guilt

Back 271

in eriksons theory, the psychological conflict of early childhood, which is resolved positively though play experiences that foster a healthier sense of initiative and through the development of a super ego, or conscience, that is not overly strict and guilt ridden

Front 272

instrumental aggression

Back 272

aggression aimed at obtaining an object, privilidge, or space with no deliberate intent to harm another person.

Front 273

nonsocial activity

Back 273

unoccupied, onlooker behavior and solitary play.

Front 274

overt aggression

Back 274

a form of hostile aggression that harms others through physical injury or the threat of such injury - for example hitting kicking or threatening to beat up a peer

Front 275

parallel play

Back 275

a form of limited social participation in which the child plays near other children with similar materials but does not try to influence their behavior

Front 276

permissive child rearing style

Back 276

a child rearing style that is high in acceptance but overindulgent or inattentive, low in control, and lenient rather than appropriate in autonomy granting

Front 277

prosocial or altruistic behavior

Back 277

actions that benefit another person without any expected reward for the self

Front 278

relational aggression

Back 278

a form of hostile aggression that damages anothers peer realtionships, as in social exclusion or rumor spreading.

Front 279

self concept

Back 279

the set of attributes, abilities, attitudes and values that an individual believes defines who he or she is

Front 280

self esteem

Back 280

the aspect of self concept that involves judgments about ones own worth and the feelings associated with those judgements

Front 281

social problem solving

Back 281

resolving social conflics in ways that are both acceptable to others and beneficial to the self. Involved noticing and accurately interpreting social cues, formulating goals that enhance relationships, generating and evaluating problem solving strategies, and enacting a response.

Front 282

sympathy

Back 282

feelings of concern or sorrow for anothers plight

Front 283

time out

Back 283

a form of mild punishment in which children are removed from the immediate setting until they are ready to act appropriately

Front 284

uninvolved child rearing style

Back 284

a child rearing style that combines low and acceptance and involvement with little control and effort to grant auntonomy. Reflects minimal commitment to parenting.

Front 285

attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Back 285

a childhood disorder involving inattentiveness, impulsivity, and excessive motor activity. Often leads to academic failure and social problems

Front 286

basic skills approach

Back 286

an approach to beginning reading instruction that emphasizes training in phonics - the basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds - and simplified reading materials.

Front 287

cognitive inhibition

Back 287

the ability to resist interference from internal and external distracting stimuli, thereby ensuring that working memory is not cluttered with irrelevant information

Front 288

cognitive maps

Back 288

mental representations of familiar, large scale spaces, such as school or neighborhood.

Front 289

cognitive self regulation

Back 289

the process of continuously monitoring progress toward a goal, checking outcomes, and redirecting unsuccessful efforts.

Front 290

community of learners

Back 290

a educational approach inspired by vygotsky's theory in which teachers guide the overall process of learning, but otherwise no distinction is made between adult and child contributors. All participate in joint endeavors and have the authority to define and resolve problems

Front 291

concrete operational stage

Back 291

piagets third stage, during which thought is logical, flexible, and organized in its application to concrete information.

Front 292

constructivist classroom

Back 292

a classroom that encourages students to contruct their own knowledge, though richly equipped learning centers, small groups and individuals solving problems they choose themselves, and a teacher who guides and supports in response to childrens needs. Studens are evaluated by considering their progress in realtion to their own prior development. Often grounded in Piaget's theory.

Front 293

control deficiency

Back 293

the inability to execute a mental strategy consistently

Front 294

convergent thinking

Back 294

the generation of a single correct answer to a problem. The type of cognition emphasized on intelligence tests.

Front 295

cooperative learning

Back 295

collaboration on a task by a small group of students who resolve differences of opinion, share responsibility, consider one another's ideas, and work toward common goals

Front 296

creativity

Back 296

the ability to produce work that is original yet approriate - something that others have not thought of but that is useful in some way.

Front 297

decentration

Back 297

the ability to focus on several aspects of a problem at once and relate them.

Front 298

divergent thinking

Back 298

the generation of multiple and unusual possibilities when faced with a task of problem.

Front 299

dynamic assessment

Back 299

an approach to testing consistent with vygotskys zone of proximal development, in which an adult introduces purposeful teaching into the testing situation to find out what the child can attain with social support.

Front 300

educational self fulfilling prohecy

Back 300

the idea that children may adopt teachers positive or negative attitudes towards them and start to live up to these views

Front 301

effective strategy use

Back 301

consistent use of a mental strategy that leads to improvement in perfomance

Front 302

elaboration

Back 302

the memory strategy of creative a relationship, or shared meaning, between two or more pieces of information that are not members of the same catagory

Front 303

FLYNN effect

Back 303

the steady increase in IQ that has occured from one generation to the next

Front 304

full inclusion

Back 304

placement of pupils with learning difficulties in regular classrooms for the entire school day

Front 305

gifted

Back 305

displaying exceptional intellectual strengths. Includes high IQ, creativity and talent

Front 306

horizontal decalage

Back 306

development within a piagetian stage. gradual mastery of logical concepts during the concrete operational stage is an example

Front 307

learning disabilities

Back 307

specific learning disorders that lead children to achieve poorly in school, despite an average or above average IQ. believed due to faulty brain functioning

Front 308

mainstreaming

Back 308

placement of pupils with learnign disorders in regular classrooms for part of the school day

Front 309

metalinguistic awareness

Back 309

the ability to think about language as a system

Front 310

organization

Back 310

in piaget's theory, the internal rearrangement and linking together of schemes so that they form a strongly interconnected cognitive system. In information processing, the memory strategy of grouping related items

Front 311

production deficiency

Back 311

the failure to produce a mental strategy when it could be helpful

Front 312

reciprocal teaching

Back 312

a teaching method based on vygotskys thepry in which a teacher and two to four students form a cooperative group. Dialogues occur that create a zone of proximal development in which reading comprehension improves

Front 313

rehersal

Back 313

the memory strategy or repeating information

Front 314

reversability

Back 314

the ability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem and then reverse direction, returning to the starting point

Front 315

seriation

Back 315

the ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight

Front 316

social contructivist classroom

Back 316

a classroom in which children participate in a wider range or challenging activities with teachers and peers, with whom they jointly construct understandings. As children appropriate (take for themselves) the knowledge and strategies generated from working together, they advance in cognitive and social development and become competent, contributing members of their cultural community.

Front 317

stereotype threat

Back 317

the fear of being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype, which can trigger anxiety that interferes with performance

Front 318

talent

Back 318

outstanding performance in a particular field

Front 319

theory of multiple intelligences

Back 319

gardner's theory, which proposes at least eight independent intelligences on the basis of distinct sets of processing operations that permit individuals to engage in a wide range or culturally valued activities

Front 320

traditional classroom

Back 320

an elementary school classroom based on the educational philosophy that children are passive learners who acquire information presented by teachers. children's process is evaluated on the basis of how well they keep up with a uniform set of standards for all students in their grade.

Front 321

transitive inference

Back 321

the ability to seriate - or order items along a quantitative dimension - mentally

Front 322

triarchic theory pf successful intelligence

Back 322

sternbergs theory, which differentiates three broad, interacting intelligences: (1) analytical intelligence (information processing skills) (2) creative intelligence (capacity to solve novel problems) (3) and practical intelligence (application of intellectual skills in everday situations). Intelligent behavior involves balancing all three to achieve success in life, according to ones personal goals and the requirements on ones cultural community

Front 323

utilization deficiency

Back 323

the inability to improve performance even with consistent use of a mental strategy.

Front 324

whole language approach

Back 324

an approach to beginning reading instruction that parallels childrens natural language learning and uses reading materials that are whole and meaningful

Front 325

attribution training

Back 325

an intervention that encourages learned helpless children to believe that they can overcome failure by exerting more effort

Front 326

attributions

Back 326

common, everday explanations for the causes of behavior

Front 327

blended or reconstituted family

Back 327

a family structure resulting from cohabitation or remarraige that includes parent child and step relatives

Front 328

distributive justice

Back 328

beliefs about how to divide material goods fairly

Front 329

coregulation

Back 329

a transitional form of supervision in which parents exercise general oversight while permitting children to be in charge or moment by moment decision making

Front 330

divorce mediation

Back 330

a series of meetings between divorcing adults and a trained professional aimed at reducing family conflict, including legal battles over property division and child custody

Front 331

emotion centered coping

Back 331

an approach to coping with stress that is internal, private and aimed at controlling negative emotion when little can be done about an outcome

Front 332

industy vs inferiority

Back 332

in eriksons theory, the psychological conflict of middle childhood, which is resolved positively when experiences lead children to develop a sense of competence at useful skills and tasks

Front 333

joint custody

Back 333

a child custody arrangement following divorce in which the court grants both parents equal say in important decisions about the childs upbringing

Front 334

learned helplessness

Back 334

attributions that credit success to luck and failure to low ability. Leads to anxious loss of control in the face of challenging tasks.

Front 335

mastery oriented attributions

Back 335

attributions that credit success to high ability and failure to insufficient effort. Lead to high self esteem and a willingness to approach challenging tasks

Front 336

perspective taking

Back 336

the capacity to imagine what other people are thinking and feeling

Front 337

phobia

Back 337

an intense, unmanageable fear that leads to persistent avoidance of the feared situation

Front 338

problem centered coping

Back 338

an approach to coping with stress in which the individual appraised the situation as changeable, indentifies the difficulty, and decides what to do about it

Front 339

self care children

Back 339

children who look after themselves during the after school hours

Front 340

social comparisons

Back 340

judgements of appearance, abilities, and behavior in relation to those of others

Front 341

sociometric techniques

Back 341

self report measures that assess peer acceptance by asking peers to evaluate one anothers likeability

Front 342

controversial children

Back 342

children who get a large number of positive and negative votes on sociometric measures or peer acceptance

Front 343

neglected children

Back 343

children who are seldomn mentioned, either positively or negatively on sociometric measures of peer acceptance

Front 344

peer acceptance

Back 344

Peer acceptance refers to likeability – the extent to which a child is viewed by a group of age mates, such as classmates, as a worthy social partner.

Front 345

peer group

Back 345

collectives that generate unique values and standards for behavior and a social structure of leaders and followers.

Front 346

peer victimization

Back 346

a destructive form of peer interaction in which certain children become frequent targets of verbal and physical attacks or other forms of abuse.

Front 347

popular children

Back 347

positive votes on sociometric measures of peer acceptance

Front 348

popular antisocial children

Back 348

consists largely of “tough boys” or athletically skilled, but poor students.

Front 349

popular prosocial children

Back 349

combine academic and social confidence

Front 350

rejected children

Back 350

activelt disliked and get many negative votes on sociometric measures of peer acceptance

Front 351

rejected aggressive children

Back 351

show high rates of conflict, aggression, and hyper active, inattentive, and impulsive behavior.

Front 352

rejective withdrawn children

Back 352

passive and socially awkward

Front 353

adolescence

Back 353

the transition between childhood and emerging adulthood

Front 354

adolescent initiation ceremony

Back 354

a ritual, or rite of passafe, announcing to the community that a young person is making the transition into adolescence or full adulthood

Front 355

anorexia nervose

Back 355

an eating disorder in which individuals (usually females) starve themselves because of a compulsive fear of getting fat and an extremely distorted body image

Front 356

autonomous morality

Back 356

piagets second stage of moral development in which children view rules as flexible, socially agreed on principles that can be revised when there is a need to do so. Begins around age 10

Front 357

autonomy

Back 357

at adolescence, a sense of oneself as a separate, self governing individual. Involved relying on oneself and less on parents for direction and guidance and engaging in careful, well reasoned decision making

Front 358

bicultural identity

Back 358

the identity constructed by adolescents who explore and adopt values from both their subculture and the dominant culture

Front 359

body image

Back 359

conception of and attitude toward ones physical appearance

Front 360

bulimia nervosa

Back 360

an eating disorder in which individuals (usually females) engage in strict dieting and excessive exercising accompanied by binge eating, often followed by deliberate vomiting and purging with laxatives

Front 361

clique

Back 361

a small group of about fivr to seven members who are good friends and therefore tend to resemble one another in family background, attitudes and values

Front 362

conventional level

Back 362

kohlberg's second level of moral development in which moral understanding is based on conforming to social rules to ensure positive human relationships and societal order

Front 363

crowd

Back 363

a large, loosely organized group consisiting of several cliques. Membership is based on reputation and stereotype

Front 364

ethnic identity

Back 364

an enduring aspect of the self that includes a sense of ethnic group membership and attitudes and feelings associated with that membership

Front 365

fantasy period

Back 365

a period of vocational development in which young children fantasize about career options through make believe play. Spans early and middle childhood

Front 366

formal operational stage

Back 366

piagets final stage in which adolescents develop the capacity for abstract, scientific thinking. Begins around eleven years of age

Front 367

gender itensification

Back 367

increased gender stereotyping of attitudes and behavior. Occurs in early adolescence

Front 368

growth spurt

Back 368

rapid gain in height and weight during adolescence

Front 369

heteronomous morality

Back 369

piagets first stage of moral development, in which children view moral rules as permanent features of the external world that are handed down by authorities, require strict obedience, and cannot be change. Extends from about 5 to 10 years

Front 370

hypothetico-deductive reasoning

Back 370

a formal operational problem solving straegy, in which adolescents begin with a deneral theory of all possible factors that could affect an outcome and deduce from that theory specific hypothesis, which they test in an orderly fashion

Front 371

identity

Back 371

a well organized conception of the self that defines who one is, what one values, and what directions one wants to persue in life.

Front 372

identity achievement

Back 372

the identity status of individuals who have explored and committed themselves to self chosen values and goals.

Front 373

identity diffusion

Back 373

the identity status of individuals who lack both exploration and commitment to self chosen values and goals

Front 374

identity foreclosure

Back 374

the identity status of individuals who lack exploration and instead are committed to ready made values and goals that authority figures have chosen for them

Front 375

identity moratorium

Back 375

the identity status of individuals who are exploring, but are not yet committed to self chosen values and goals

Front 376

identity versus identity confusion

Back 376

in eriksons theory, the psychological conflict of adolescence which is resolved positively when adolescents attain an identity after successful outcomes of earlier stages

Front 377

imaginary audience

Back 377

adolescents belief that they are the focus of everyones elses attention and concern

Front 378

logical necessity

Back 378

a basic property of propositional thought, which specifies that the accuracy of conclusions drawn from premises rests on the rules of logic, not on real world confirmation

Front 379

menarche

Back 379

first menstration

Front 380

personal fable

Back 380

adolescents belief that they are special and unique. Leads them to conclude that others cannot possibly understand their thoughts and feelings. May promote a sense on invulnerability to danger

Front 381

postconventional level

Back 381

kohlbergs highest level of moral development, in which individuals define morality in terms of abstract priciples and values that apply to all situations and societies

Front 382

preconventional level

Back 382

kohlbergs first level or moral development in which moral understanding is based on rewards punishments and the power of authority figures

Front 383

primary sexual characteristics

Back 383

physical features that involve the reproductive organs directly (ovaries, utuerus and vagina, penis scrotum and testes)

Front 384

propositional thought

Back 384

a type of formal operational reasoning in which adolescents evaluate the logic of verbal statements without referring to real world circumstances

Front 385

puberty

Back 385

biological changes at adolescence that lead to an adult size body and sexual maturity

Front 386

realistic thought

Back 386

the period of vocational development in which adolescents focus on a general career category and slightly later settle on a single occupation. Spans late adolescence and young adulthood

Front 387

secondary sexual characteristics

Back 387

visible features on the outside of the body that serve as signs of sexual maturity but do not involve the reproductive organs. (breasts, underarm and pubic hair)

Front 388

spermarche

Back 388

First ejaculation

Front 389

tentative period

Back 389

a period of vocational development in which adolescents start to think about careers in more complex ways by weighing vocational options against interests, abilities, and values. Spans early and middle adolescence.