Child Development Psyc

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Nature

Back 1

our biological endowment; the genes we receive from our parents

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Nurture

Back 2

the environments, both physical and social, that influence our development

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Continuous development

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the idea that changes with age occur gradually, in small increments, like that of a pine tree growing taller and taller

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Discontinuous development

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the idea that changes with age include occasional large shifts, like the transition from caterpillar to cocoon to butterfly

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Stage theories

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approaches that propose that development involves a series of discontinuous, age-related phases

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Cognitive development

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the development of thinking and reasoning

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Variation

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differences in thought and behavior within and among individuals

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Selection

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the more frequent survival and reproduction of organisms that are well adapted to their environment

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Sociocultural context

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the physical, social, cultural, economic, and historical circumstances that make up any child's environment

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Socioeconomic status

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a measure of social class based on income and education

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Scientific method

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an approach to testing beliefs that involves choosing a question, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and drawing a conclusion

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Hypotheses

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educated guesses

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Reliability

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the degree to which independent measurements of a given behavior are consistent

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Interrater reliability

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the amount of agreement in the observations of different raters who witness the same behavior

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Test-retest reliability

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the degree of similarity of a child's performance on two or more occasions

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Validity

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the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure

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Internal validity

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the degree to which effects observed within experiments can be attributed to the variables that the researcher intentionally manipulated

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External validity

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the degree to which results can be generalized beyond the particulars of the research

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Structured interview

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a research procedure in which all participants are asked to answer the same questions

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Clinical interview

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a procedure in which questions are adjusted in accord with the answers the interviewee provides

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Naturalistic observation

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examination of how children behave in their usual environments

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Structured observation

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a method that involves presenting an identical situation to each child and recording the child's behavior

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Variables

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attributes that vary across individuals and situations, such as age, gender, and expectations

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Correlational designs

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studies intended to indicate how variables are related to each other

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Correlation

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the association between two variables

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Correlation coefficient

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a statistic that indicates the direction and strength of a correlation

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Direction of causation problem

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the concept that a correlation between two variables does not indicate which variable is the cause of the other

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Third variable problem

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the concept that a correlation between two variables may stem from both being influenced by some third variable

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Experimental designs

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a group of approaches that allow inferences about causes and effects to be drawn

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Random assignment

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a procedure in which each child has an equal chance of being assigned to each group within an experiment

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Experimental control

Back 31

the ability of the researcher to determine the specific experiences that children have during the course of an experiment

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Experimental group

Back 32

a group of children in an experimental design who are presented the experience of interest

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Control group

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the group of children in an experimental design who are not presented the experience of interest

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Independent variable

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the experience that children in the experimental group receive and that children in the control group do not receive

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Dependent variable

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a behavior that is measured to determine whether it is affect by exposure to the independent variable

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Naturalistic experiments

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a type of experimental design in which data are collected in everyday settings

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Cross-sectional design

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a research method in which children of different ages are compared on a given behavior or characteristic over a short period of time

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Longitudinal design

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a method of study in which the same children are studied twice or more over a substantial period of time

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Microgenetic design

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a method of study in which the same children are studied repeatedly over a short period of time

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Genome

Back 40

the complete set of genes of any organism

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Genotype

Back 41

the genetic material an individual inherits

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Phenotype

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the observable expression of the genotype, including both body characteristics and behavior

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Environment

Back 43

every aspect of an individual and his or her surroundings other than genes

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Chromosomes

Back 44

molecules of DNA that transmit genetic information and are made up of DNA

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DNA

Back 45

molecules that carry all the biochemical instructions involved in the formation and functioning of an organism

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Genes

Back 46

sections of chromosomes that are the basic unit of heredity in all living things

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Sec chromosomes

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the chromosomes that determine an individual's gender

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Mutation

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a change in a section of DNA

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Crossing over

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the process by which sections of DNA switch form one chromosome to the other; promotes variability among individuals

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Regulator genes

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genes that control the activity of other genes

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Alleles

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two or more different forms of a gene

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Dominant allele

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the allele that, if present, gets expressed

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Recessive allele

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the allele that is not expressed if a dominant allele is present

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Homozygous

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having two of the same allele for a trait

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Heterozygous

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having two different alleles for a trait

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Polygenic inheritance

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inheritance in which traits are governed by more than one gene

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Norm of reaction

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all the phenotypes that can theoretically result from a given genotype in relation to all the environments in which it can survive and develop

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PKU

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a disorder related to a defective recessive gene on chromosome 12 that prevents metabolism of phenylalanine

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Behavior genetics

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the science concerned with how variation in behavior and development results from the combination of genetic and environmental factors

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Heritable

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refers to anything influenced by heredity

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Heritability

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a statistical estimate of the proportion of the measured variance on a trait among individuals in a given population that is attributable to genetic differences among those individuals

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Neurons

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cells that are specialized for sending and receiving messaged between the brain and all parts of the body, as well as within the brain itself

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Cell body

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a component of the neuron that contains the basic biological material that keeps the neuron functioning

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Dendrites

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neural fibers that receive input from other cells and conduct it toward the cell body in the form of electrical impulses

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Axons

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neural fibers that conduct electrical signals away from the cell body to connections with other neurons

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Synapses

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microscopic junctions between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendritic branches or cell body of another

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Glial cells

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cells in the brain that provide a variety of critical supportive functions

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Myelin sheath

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a fatty sheath that forms around certain axons in the body and increases the speed and efficiency of information transmission

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Cerebral cortex

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the gray matter of the brain that plays a primary role in what is thought to be particularly humanlike functioning, from seeing and hearing to writing to feeling emotion

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Lobes

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major areas of the cortex

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Occipital lobe

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the lobe of the brain that is primarily involved in processing visual information

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Temporal lobe

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the lobe of the brain that is associated with memory, visual recognition, and the processing of emotion and auditory information

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Parietal lobe

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the lobe of the brain that governs spatial processing as well as integrating sensory input with information stored in memory

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Frontal lobe

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the lobe of the brain associated with organizing behavior and the one that is thought responsible for the human ability to plan ahead

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Association areas

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parts of the brain that lie between the major sensory and motor areas that process and integrate input from those areas

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Cerebral hemispheres

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the two halves of the cortex; for the most part, sensory input from one side of the body goes to the opposite hemisphere of the brain

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Corpus callosum

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a dense tract of nerve fibers that enable the two hemispheres of the brain to communicate

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Cerebral lateralization

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the phenomenon that each hemisphere of the brain is specialized for different modes of processing

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Neurogenesis

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the proliferation of neurons through cell division

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Spines

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formations on the dendrites of neurons that increase the dendrites' capacity to form connections with other neurons

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Myelination

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the formation of myelin (a fatty sheath) around the axons of neurons that speeds and increases information processing abilities

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Synaptogenesis

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the process by which neurons form synapses with other neurons, resulting in trillions of connections

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Synaptic pruning

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the normal developmental process through which synapses that are rarely activated are eliminated

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Plasticity

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the capacity of the brain to be affected by experience

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Experience expectant plasticity

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the process through which the normal wiring of the brain occurs in part as a result of the kinds of general experiences that every human who inhabits any reasonably normal environment will have

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Experience dependent plasticity

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the process through which neural connections are created and reorganized throughout life as a function of an individual's experiences

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Secular trends

Back 87

marked changes in physical development that have occurred over generations

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Failure to thrive

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a condition in which infants become malnourished and fail to grow or gain weight for no obvious medical reason

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Marasmus

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malnutrition brought about by the ingestion of too few calories

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Kwashiorkor

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malnutrition brought about by inadequate protein

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Epigenesis

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the emergence of new structures and functions in the course of development

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Embryology

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the scientific study of prenatal development

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Gametes - germ cells

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reproduce cells, egg and sperm, that contain only half of the genetic material of all the other cells in the body

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Conception

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the union of an egg from the mother and a sperm from the father

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Zygote

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a fertilized egg cell

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Embryo

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the name given to the developing organism from the 3rd to 8th week of prenatal development

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Fetus

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the name given to the developing organism form the 9th week to birth

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Germinal period

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from conception to two weeks when the zygote becomes implanted in the uterine wall; rapid cell division takes place

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Embryonic period

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3-8th week - following implantation, major development occurs in all the organs and systems of the body; development takes place through the processes of cell division, cell migration, cell differentiation, and cell death as well as hormonal influences

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Fetal period

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9th week to birth - continued development of physical structures and rapid growth of the body; increasing levels of behavior, sensory experience, and learning

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Phylogentic continuity

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the idea that because of our common evolutionary history, humans share many characteristics, behaviors, and developmental processes with other animals, especially mammals

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Apoptosis

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genetically programmed cell death

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Identical twins

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twins that result from the splitting in half of the zygote, resulting in each of the two resulting zygotes having exactly the same set of genes

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Fraternal twins

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twins that result when two eggs happen to be released into the fallopian tube at the same time and are fertilized by two different sperm; they only have half of their genes in common

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Neural tube

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a groove formed in the top layer of differentiated cells in the embryo that eventually becomes the brain and spinal cord

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Placenta

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a support organ for the fetus; it keeps the circulatory systems of the fetus and mother separate, but as a semipermeable membrane permits the exchange of some materials between them (oxygen and nutrients from mother to fetus and carbon dioxide and waste products from fetus to mother)

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Umbilical cord

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a tube containing the blood vessels connecting the fetus and placenta

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Amniotic sac

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a transparent, fluid filled membrane that surrounds and protects the fetus

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Cephalocaudal development

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the pattern of growth in which areas near the head develop earlier than areas farther from the head

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Habituation

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a simple form of learning that involves a decrease in response to repeated or continued stimulation

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Teratogen

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external agent that can cause damage or death during prenatal development

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Sensitive period

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the period of time during which a developing organism is most sensitive to the effects of external factors; prenatally, the sensitive period is when the fetus is maximally sensitive to the harmful effects of teratogens

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Dose response relation

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a relation in which the effect of exposure to an element increases with the extent of exposure

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Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder - FASD

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the harmful effects of maternal alcohol consumption on a developing fetus

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Fetal alcohol syndrome - FAS

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involves a range of effects, including facial deformities, mental retardation, attention problems, hyperactivity, and other defects

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Fetal alcohol effects - FAE

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is a term used for individuals who show some, but not all, of the standard effects of FAS

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SIDS - sudden infant death syndrome

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the sudden, unexpected death of an infant less than 1 year of age that has no identifiable cause

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State

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level of arousal and engagement in the environment, ranging from deep sleep to intense activity

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REM sleep

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an active sleep state characterized by quick, jerky eye movements under closed lids and associated with dreaming adults

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Non-REM sleep

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a quiet or deep sleep state characterized by the absence of motor activity or eye movements and regular, slow brain waves, breathing, and heart rate

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Autostimulation theory

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the idea that brain activity during REM sleep in the fetus and newborn facilitates the early development of the visual system

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Swaddling

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a soothing technique, used in many cultures, that involves wrapping a baby tightly in clothes or a blanket

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Colic

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excessive, inconsolable crying by a young infant for no apparent reason

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Low birth weight - LBW

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a birth weight of less than 5.5 pounds

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Premature

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any child born at 35 weeks after conception or earlier (normal term is 38 weeks)

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Small for gestational age

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babies that weigh substantially less than is normal for whatever their gestational age

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Developmental resilience

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successful development in spite of multiple and seemingly overwhelming developmental hazards

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Sensation

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the processing of basic information from the external world by the sensory receptors in the sense organs and brain

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Perception

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the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information

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Preferential looking technique

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a method for studying visual attention in infants that involves showing infants two patterns or two objects at a time to see if the infants have a preference for one over the other

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Visual acuity

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the sharpness of visual discrimination

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Contrast sensitivity

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the ability to detect differences in light and dark areas in a visual pattern

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Fovea

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the central region of the retina

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Perceptual constancy

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the perception of objects as being of constant size, shape, color despite physical differences in the retinal image of the object

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Object segregation

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the identification of separate objects in a visual array

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Optical expansion

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a depth cue in which an object occludes increasingly more of the background, indicating that the object is approaching

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Binocular disparity

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the difference between the retinal image of an object in each eye that results in two slightly different signals being sent to the brain

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Stereopsis

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the process by which the visual cortex combines the differing neural signals caused by binocular disparity, resulting in the perception of depth

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Monocular or pictorial cues

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the perceptual cues of depth that can be perceived by one eye alone; examples are relative size and interposition

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Auditory localization

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perception of the location in space of a sound source

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Intermodal perception

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the combining of information from two or more sensory systems

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Reflexes

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innate, fixed patterns of action that occur in response to particular stimulation

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Stepping reflex

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a neonatal in which an infant lifts first one leg and then the other in a coordinated pattern like walking

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Prereaching movements

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clumsy swiping movements by young infants toward the general vicinity of objects they see

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Self locomotion

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the ability to move one-self around in the environment

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Scale error

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the attempt by a young child to perform an action on a miniature object that is impossible due to the large discrepancy in the relative sizes of the child and the object

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Differentiation

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the extraction from the constantly changing stimulation in the environment of those elements that are invariant or stable

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Affordances

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the possibilities for action offered by objects and situations

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Classical conditioning

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a form of learning that consists of associating an initially neutral stimulus with a stimulus that always evokes a particular reflexive response

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unconditioned stimulus - UCS

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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that evokes a reflexive response

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Unconditioned response - UCR

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in classical conditioning, a reflexive response that is elicited by the unconditioned stimulus

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Conditioned stimulus - CS

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in classical conditioning, the neutral stimulus that is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus

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Conditioned response - CR

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in classical conditioning, the originally reflexive response the comes to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus

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Instrumental conditioning - operant conditioning

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learning the relation between one's own behavior and the consequences that result

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Positive reinforcement

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a reward that reliably follows a behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated

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Violation of expectancy

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a procedure used to study infant cognition in which infants are shown an event that should evoke surprise or interest if it violates something the infant knows or assumes to be true